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+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
+<title>Chapter 1. </title>
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+<body bgcolor="white" text="black" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084" alink="#0000FF"><div class="chapter" id="chap04_handout">
+<div class="titlepage"></div>
+<div class="toc">
+<p><b>Table of Contents</b></p>
+<dl>
+<dt><span class="article"><a href="#id2325149">LaTeX</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#tex-latex">1. TeX &amp; LaTeX</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#tex">1.1. TeX</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#latex">1.2. LaTeX</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#wysiwg-vs-wysiwm">2. WYSIWG vs. WYSIWM</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#hello-world">3. Hello World</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#compiling-output">3.1. Compiling &amp; Output</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#a-peek-at-the-source">3.2. A peek at the source</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#where-do-we-want-to-go">4. Where do we want to go</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#some-basics">5. Some Basics</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#spaces">5.1. Spaces</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#line-page-breaks">5.2. Line &amp; Page Breaks</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#paragraphs">5.3. Paragraphs</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#special-characters">5.4. Special Characters</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#commands">5.5. Commands</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#environments">5.6. Environments</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#some-structural-elements">6. Some Structural Elements</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#documentclass">6.1.
+<code class="literal">\documentclass</code>
+</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#parts-chapters-and-sections">6.2. Parts, Chapters and Sections</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#top-matter">6.3. Top Matter</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#abstract">6.4. Abstract</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#appendices">6.5. Appendices</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#table-of-contents">6.6. Table of Contents</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#elementary-text-typesetting">7. Elementary Text Typesetting</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#emphasizing">7.1. Emphasizing</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#quotation-marks">7.2. Quotation Marks</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#dashes-and-hyphens">7.3. Dashes and Hyphens</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#footnotes">7.4. Footnotes</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#flushleft-flushright-and-center">7.5. Flushleft, Flushright, and Center</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#itemize-enumerate-and-description">7.6. Itemize, Enumerate, and Description</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#quote-quotation-and-verse">7.7. Quote, Quotation, and Verse</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#verbatim">7.8. Verbatim</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#tables-figures-and-captions">8. Tables, Figures and Captions</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#the-tabular-environment">8.1. The
+<code class="literal">\tabular</code> environment
+</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#importing-graphics">8.2. Importing Graphics</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#floats">8.3. Floats</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#captions">8.4. Captions</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#list-of-figures-tables">8.5. List of Figures, Tables</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#cross-references">8.6. Cross References</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#bibliography">9. Bibliography</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#thebibliography-environment">9.1.
+<code class="literal">thebibliography</code> environment
+</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#bibtex">9.2. BibTeX</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#typesetting-math">10. Typesetting Math</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#math-mode">10.1. Math Mode</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#single-equations">10.2. Single Equations</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#basic-elements">10.3. Basic Elements</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#multiple-equations">10.4. Multiple Equations</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#arrays-and-matrices">10.5. Arrays and Matrices</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#miscellaneous-stuff">11. Miscellaneous Stuff</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#presentations">11.1. Presentations</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#including-code">11.2. Including Code</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#including-files">11.3. Including files</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#recommended-reading">12. Recommended Reading</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+</dl>
+</div>
+<div class="article" title="LaTeX">
+<div class="titlepage">
+<div><div><h2 class="title">
+<a name="id2325149"></a>LaTeX</h2></div></div>
+<hr>
+</div>
+<div class="toc">
+<p><b>Table of Contents</b></p>
+<dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#tex-latex">1. TeX &amp; LaTeX</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#tex">1.1. TeX</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#latex">1.2. LaTeX</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#wysiwg-vs-wysiwm">2. WYSIWG vs. WYSIWM</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#hello-world">3. Hello World</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#compiling-output">3.1. Compiling &amp; Output</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#a-peek-at-the-source">3.2. A peek at the source</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#where-do-we-want-to-go">4. Where do we want to go</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#some-basics">5. Some Basics</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#spaces">5.1. Spaces</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#line-page-breaks">5.2. Line &amp; Page Breaks</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#paragraphs">5.3. Paragraphs</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#special-characters">5.4. Special Characters</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#commands">5.5. Commands</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#environments">5.6. Environments</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#some-structural-elements">6. Some Structural Elements</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#documentclass">6.1.
+<code class="literal">\documentclass</code>
+</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#parts-chapters-and-sections">6.2. Parts, Chapters and Sections</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#top-matter">6.3. Top Matter</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#abstract">6.4. Abstract</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#appendices">6.5. Appendices</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#table-of-contents">6.6. Table of Contents</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#elementary-text-typesetting">7. Elementary Text Typesetting</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#emphasizing">7.1. Emphasizing</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#quotation-marks">7.2. Quotation Marks</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#dashes-and-hyphens">7.3. Dashes and Hyphens</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#footnotes">7.4. Footnotes</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#flushleft-flushright-and-center">7.5. Flushleft, Flushright, and Center</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#itemize-enumerate-and-description">7.6. Itemize, Enumerate, and Description</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#quote-quotation-and-verse">7.7. Quote, Quotation, and Verse</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#verbatim">7.8. Verbatim</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#tables-figures-and-captions">8. Tables, Figures and Captions</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#the-tabular-environment">8.1. The
+<code class="literal">\tabular</code> environment
+</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#importing-graphics">8.2. Importing Graphics</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#floats">8.3. Floats</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#captions">8.4. Captions</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#list-of-figures-tables">8.5. List of Figures, Tables</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#cross-references">8.6. Cross References</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#bibliography">9. Bibliography</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#thebibliography-environment">9.1.
+<code class="literal">thebibliography</code> environment
+</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#bibtex">9.2. BibTeX</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#typesetting-math">10. Typesetting Math</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#math-mode">10.1. Math Mode</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#single-equations">10.2. Single Equations</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#basic-elements">10.3. Basic Elements</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#multiple-equations">10.4. Multiple Equations</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#arrays-and-matrices">10.5. Arrays and Matrices</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#miscellaneous-stuff">11. Miscellaneous Stuff</a></span></dt>
+<dd><dl>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#presentations">11.1. Presentations</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#including-code">11.2. Including Code</a></span></dt>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#including-files">11.3. Including files</a></span></dt>
+</dl></dd>
+<dt><span class="section"><a href="#recommended-reading">12. Recommended Reading</a></span></dt>
+</dl>
+</div>Introduction
+<p id="x_c8"></a>LaTeX is a typesetting program used to produce excellently typeset documents. It is extensively used for producing high quality scientific and mathematical documents. It may also be used for producing other kinds of documents, ranging from simple one page articles or letters</p>
+<div class="section" title="1. TeX &amp; LaTeX">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="tex-latex"></a>1. TeX &amp; LaTeX</h2></div></div></div>
+<div class="section" title="1.1. TeX">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="tex"></a>1.1. TeX</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_c9"></a>TeX is a typesetting system designed by Donald Knuth, the renowned Computer Scientist and Emeritus professor at Stanford University. Typesetting is placing text onto a page with all the style formatting defined, so that content looks as intended.</p>
+<p id="x_ca"></a>It was designed with two goals in mind-</p>
+<div class="orderedlist"><ol class="orderedlist" type="1">
+<li class="listitem"><p id="x_cb"></a>To allow anybody to produce high-quality books using a reasonable amount of effort.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem"><p id="x_cc"></a>To provide a system that would give the exact same results on all computers, now and in the future</p></li>
+</ol></div>
+<p id="x_cd"></a>TeX is well known for it's stability and portability.</p>
+<p id="x_ce"></a>TeX is pronounced as "tech".</p>
+<p id="x_cf"></a>The current version of TeX is 3.1415926 and is converging to π.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="1.2. LaTeX">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="latex"></a>1.2. LaTeX</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_d0"></a>LaTeX was originally written by Leslie Lamport in the early 1980s. It is an extension of TeX, consisting of TeX macros and a program to parse the LaTeX files. It is easier to use than TeX itself, at the same time producing the same quality of output.</p>
+<p id="x_d1"></a>LaTeX is pronounced either as "Lah-tech" or "Lay-tech"</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="2. WYSIWG vs. WYSIWM">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="wysiwg-vs-wysiwm"></a>2. WYSIWG vs. WYSIWM</h2></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_d2"></a>WYSIWG is an acronym for "What You See Is What You Get". Word processors, are typically WYSIWG tools. LaTeX, TeX or other TeX based tools are not. They are typesetting or text formatting or document description programs. They can be called WYSIWM or "What You See Is What you Mean" systems, since you give a description of how things look, and LaTeX typesets the document for you.</p>
+<p id="x_d3"></a>Here are a few reasons, why you should use LaTeX -</p>
+<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote"><div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" type="*">
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_d4"></a>LaTeX produces documents with excellent visual quality, especially mathematical and scientific documents.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_d5"></a>It does the typesetting to you. Typically, when one works with a word-processor, the user is doing the text formatting or typesetting along with typing out the content. LaTeX allows the user to concentrate on the content leaving aside the typesetting to LaTeX.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_d6"></a>It is light on your resources as compared to most of the word processors available today.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_d7"></a>It is well known for it's stability and for it's virtually bug free code base.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_d8"></a>It encourages users to structure documents by meaning rather than appearance, thereby helping produce well structured documents.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_d9"></a>It uses plain text files as input, which have a lot of well known advantages over binary files. To state a few, they can be opened with any editor on any operating system, they are smaller in size compared to the binaries, can be version controlled and can be processed using widely used text processing utilities.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_da"></a>The output can be generated in more than one formats.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_db"></a>It is free software (free as in freedom) and gratis too.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_dc"></a>It is widely used.</p></li>
+</ul></div></blockquote></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="3. Hello World">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="hello-world"></a>3. Hello World</h2></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_dd"></a>OK, let's get started with our first LaTeX document. Open up your favorite editor and type in the following code.</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">%hello.tex - First LaTeX document
+\documentclass{article}
+\begin{document}
+Hello, World!
+\end{document}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_de"></a>Save the file as
+<code class="literal">hello.tex</code> and open up a terminal to compile your
+<code class="literal">tex</code> file to get the output in a
+<code class="literal">pdf</code> format.
+</p>
+<div class="section" title="3.1. Compiling &amp; Output">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="compiling-output"></a>3.1. Compiling &amp; Output</h3></div></div></div>
+<pre class="programlisting">$pdflatex hello.tex
+Output written on hello.pdf (1 page, 5733 bytes).
+Transcript written on hello.log.
+</pre>
+<p id="x_df"></a>Open the
+<code class="literal">hello.pdf</code> to see the output as shown.
+</p>
+<div class="mediaobject"><img src="examples/hello.jpg"></div>
+<p id="x_e0"></a>Note: The command
+<code class="literal">latex</code> is often used to get the
+<code class="literal">dvi</code> output. But, throughout this course, we shall use pdflatex to compile our documents.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="3.2. A peek at the source">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="a-peek-at-the-source"></a>3.2. A peek at the source</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_e1"></a>
+<code class="literal">%hello.tex - First LaTeX document</code>
+</p>
+<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote"><p id="x_e2"></a>This line is a comment. LaTeX ignores this line and it is meant only for the human readers. LaTeX ignores anything after a
+<code class="literal">%</code> symbol to the end of the line.
+</p></blockquote></div>
+<p id="x_e3"></a>
+<code class="literal">\documentclass{article}</code>
+</p>
+<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote"><p id="x_e4"></a>This line is a command and sets the
+<code class="literal">documentclass</code> of the document to
+<code class="literal">article</code>. LaTeX has other classes like
+<code class="literal">report</code>,
+<code class="literal">book</code>,
+<code class="literal">letter</code>, etc. The typesetting of the document varies depending on the
+<code class="literal">documentclass</code> of the document.
+</p></blockquote></div>
+<p id="x_e5"></a>
+<code class="literal">\begin{document}</code>
+</p>
+<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote"><p id="x_e6"></a>This line informs LaTeX that this is the beginning of the content of the document.</p></blockquote></div>
+<p id="x_e7"></a>
+<code class="literal">Hello, World!</code>
+</p>
+<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote"><p id="x_e8"></a>This is the actual text displayed in the document.</p></blockquote></div>
+<p id="x_e9"></a>
+<code class="literal">\end{document}</code>
+</p>
+<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote"><p id="x_ea"></a>This line tells LaTeX that the document is complete and LaTeX will simply ignore anything written after this line.</p></blockquote></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="4. Where do we want to go">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="where-do-we-want-to-go"></a>4. Where do we want to go</h2></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_eb"></a>During the course of this session we will learn how to do various things in LaTeX and try to produce the sample document provided.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="5. Some Basics">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="some-basics"></a>5. Some Basics</h2></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_ec"></a>Before we get started with creating the document, let's try to understand a few things that would be useful during the course of this session.</p>
+<div class="section" title="5.1. Spaces">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="spaces"></a>5.1. Spaces</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_ed"></a>LaTeX treats multiple empty spaces (or lines) as a single space (or line). An empty line between two lines of text is considered as a change of paragraphs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="5.2. Line &amp; Page Breaks">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="line-page-breaks"></a>5.2. Line &amp; Page Breaks</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_ee"></a>LaTeX usually does the job of breaking up your content into lines and pages, and does it well. But under some circumstances, you might want to instruct LaTeX to break line or start a new page at a particular point.</p>
+<p id="x_ef"></a>
+<code class="literal">\\</code> or
+<code class="literal">\newline</code> command is used to create a new line at the point where the command is issued. Appending
+<code class="literal">*</code> to
+<code class="literal">\\</code>,  instructs LaTeX to create a new line, without creating a new page at that point.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="5.3. Paragraphs">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="paragraphs"></a>5.3. Paragraphs</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_f0"></a>As already mentioned, LaTeX considers an empty line between two lines of text as a new paragraph.
+<code class="literal">\par</code> command may also be used to start a newline. It is equivalent to the blank line.
+</p>
+<p id="x_f1"></a>By default LaTeX indents new paragraphs. If you do not wish to have the paragraph indented, you can use the
+<code class="literal">\nointend</code> command at the beginning of the paragraph.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="5.4. Special Characters">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="special-characters"></a>5.4. Special Characters</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_f2"></a>LaTeX associates special meaning to the  characters
+<code class="literal">~ # $ % ^ &amp; _ { } \</code>.
+</p>
+<p id="x_f3"></a>To have these characters in the text of your document, you need to prefix a backslash to them.
+<code class="literal">\~ \# \% \$ \^ \&amp; \_ \{ \} \textbackslash</code>
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="5.5. Commands">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="commands"></a>5.5. Commands</h3></div></div></div>
+<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" type="*">
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_f4"></a>All LaTeX commands start with a backslash
+<code class="literal">\</code>.
+</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_f5"></a>Like the commands in Linux, they are case sensitive.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_f6"></a>They usually have a backslash followed by a consisting of letters only. Any character other than letters, like space, numbers or special characters terminate the command.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_f7"></a>The commands for producing special characters in the text, is an exception. They contain a backslash followed by a single special character.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_f8"></a>Commands may have parameters, which are supplied to them by enclosing them in curly braces
+<code class="literal">{ }</code>.
+</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_f9"></a>They may also have a few optional parameters which are added after the name in square brackets
+<code class="literal">[ ]</code>.
+</p></li>
+</ul></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="5.6. Environments">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="environments"></a>5.6. Environments</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_fa"></a>Environments are very similar to the commands, except that they effect larger parts of the document. For example, we used the
+<code class="literal">document</code> environment in our first LaTeX document.
+</p>
+<div class="itemizedlist"><ul class="itemizedlist" type="*">
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_fb"></a>They begin with a
+<code class="literal">\begin</code> and end with a
+<code class="literal">\end</code>
+</p></li>
+<li class="listitem" style="list-style-type: *"><p id="x_fc"></a>In general environments can be nested within each other.</p></li>
+</ul></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="6. Some Structural Elements">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="some-structural-elements"></a>6. Some Structural Elements</h2></div></div></div>
+<div class="section" title="6.1.  \documentclass">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="documentclass"></a>6.1.
+<code class="literal">\documentclass</code>
+</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_fd"></a>As already stated, the
+<code class="literal">documentclass</code> command tells LaTeX, the type of the document that you intend to create. Each class has a few differences in how the content of the document is typeset. We presently have it set to the article class. Let us try changing it to the report class.
+</p>
+<p id="x_fe"></a>Note that the top matter of the document appears in a different page for the report class.</p>
+<p id="x_ff"></a>Some of the LaTeX classes that you may want to use are, article, proc, report, book, slides, letter.</p>
+<p id="x_100"></a>The
+<code class="literal">documentclass</code> command also accepts a few optional parameters. For example:
+</p>
+<p id="x_101"></a>\documentclass[12pt,a4paper,oneside,draft]{report}</p>
+<p id="x_102"></a>
+<code class="literal">12pt</code> specifies the size of the main font in the document. The relative sizes of the various fonts is maintained, when the font size is changed. If no size is specified,
+<code class="literal">10pt</code> is assumed by default.
+</p>
+<p id="x_103"></a>
+<code class="literal">a4paper</code> specifies the size of the paper to be used for the document.
+</p>
+<p id="x_104"></a>
+<code class="literal">oneside</code> specifies that the document will be printed only on one side of the paper. The
+<code class="literal">article</code> and
+<code class="literal">report</code> classes are
+<code class="literal">oneside</code> by default and the
+<code class="literal">book</code> class is
+<code class="literal">twoside</code>.
+</p>
+<p id="x_105"></a>
+<code class="literal">draft</code> marks the hyphenation and justification problems in the document with a small square in the right hand margin of the document, so that they can be easily spotted.
+</p>
+<p id="x_106"></a>Note: Everything written in between the
+<code class="literal">\documentclass</code> command and the
+<code class="literal">\begin{document}</code> command is called the Preamble.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="6.2. Parts, Chapters and Sections">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="parts-chapters-and-sections"></a>6.2. Parts, Chapters and Sections</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_107"></a>Often documents are divided into various parts, chapters, sections and subsections. LaTeX provides an intuitive mechanism to include this in your documents. It has various commands like
+<code class="literal">part</code>,
+<code class="literal">chapter</code>,
+<code class="literal">section</code>,
+<code class="literal">subsection</code>,
+<code class="literal">subsubsection</code>,
+<code class="literal">paragraph</code> and
+<code class="literal">subparagraph</code>. Note that all these commands are not available in all the document classes. The
+<code class="literal">chapter</code> command is available only in books and reports. Also, the
+<code class="literal">letter</code> document class does not have any of these commands.
+</p>
+<p id="x_108"></a>Let us now give our document some structure, using these commands.</p>
+<p id="x_109"></a>Note that you do not need to provide any numbers to the commands. LaTeX automatically takes care of the numbering. Also, you do not need to enclose the text of a block within
+<code class="literal">\begin</code> and
+<code class="literal">\end</code> commands. LaTeX starts a new block each time it finds a sectioning command. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\section[Short Title]{This is a very long title and the Short Title will appear in the Table of Contents.}
+</pre>
+<div class="section" title="6.2.1. Section Numbering">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
+<a name="section-numbering"></a>6.2.1. Section Numbering</h4></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_10a"></a>As already, you don't need to explicitly do any numbering in LaTeX. Parts are numbered using roman numerals; Chapters and sections are numbered using decimal numbers. When the table of contents is inserted into a document, all the numbered headings automatically appear in it.</p>
+<p id="x_10b"></a>By default LaTeX has numbering up 2 levels, i.e, the parts, chapters, sections and subsections are numbered. You can change this by setting the
+<code class="literal">secnumdepth</code> counter using the
+<code class="literal">\setcounter</code> command. The following command removes numbering of the subsections. Only parts, chapters and sections are numbered. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\setcounter{secnumdepth}{1}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_10c"></a>A sectioning command appended with an asterisk gives an unnumbered heading that is not included in the table of contents. :</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\section*{Introduction}
+</pre>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="6.3. Top Matter">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="top-matter"></a>6.3. Top Matter</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_10d"></a>The information about the document such as it's title, the date, the author(s) information etc, is collectively known as the topmatter. Though there is no command called
+<code class="literal">topmatter</code>, the term topmatter is frequently used in LaTeX documentation.
+</p>
+<p id="x_10e"></a>Let us input the top matter for our document now. :</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\title{LaTeX - A How-to}
+\author{The FOSSEE Team}
+\date
+</pre>
+<p id="x_10f"></a>The  commands
+<code class="literal">\title</code> and
+<code class="literal">\author</code> are self explanatory. The
+<code class="literal">\date</code> command automatically puts in today's date into the document. Now let us compile and look at the result.
+</p>
+<p id="x_110"></a>You would observe that the details do not appear in the document after recompilation. This is because, LaTeX has not been instructed what to do with the top matter information that you have given it. Use the
+<code class="literal">\maketitle</code> command within the document environment to instruct LaTeX to place the top matter information into the document.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="6.4. Abstract">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="abstract"></a>6.4. Abstract</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_111"></a>Lets now place and abstract in the document using the
+<code class="literal">abstract</code> environment of LaTeX. The abstract appears in the document after the topmatter but before the main body of the document. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\begin{abstract}
+The abstract abstract.
+\end{abstract}
+</pre>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="6.5. Appendices">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="appendices"></a>6.5. Appendices</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_112"></a>LaTeX allows for separate numbering for appendices.
+<code class="literal">\appendix</code> command indicates that the sections following are to be included in the appendix. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\appendix
+\chapter{First Appendix}
+</pre>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="6.6. Table of Contents">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="table-of-contents"></a>6.6. Table of Contents</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_113"></a>Parts, chapters or sections that have been auto numbered by LaTeX automatically appear in the Table of Contents (ToC).
+<code class="literal">\tableofcontents</code> command places a the ToC, where the command has been issued.
+</p>
+<p id="x_114"></a>The counter
+<code class="literal">tocdepth</code> specifies the depth up to which headings appear in the ToC. It can be set using the
+<code class="literal">\setcounter</code> command as shown below. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\setcounter{tocdepth}{3}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_115"></a>Unnumbered sections can be placed in the table of contents using the
+<code class="literal">\addcontentsline</code> command as shown below. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\section*{Introduction}
+\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Introduction}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_116"></a>Note: To get the correct entries in your table of contents, you will need to run one extra compilation, each time. This is because, the entries of the table of contents are collected during each compilation of the document and utilized during the next compilation.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="7. Elementary Text Typesetting">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="elementary-text-typesetting"></a>7. Elementary Text Typesetting</h2></div></div></div>
+<div class="section" title="7.1. Emphasizing">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="emphasizing"></a>7.1. Emphasizing</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_117"></a>
+<span class="emphasis"><em>Italic</em></span> font is generally used to emphasize text. The
+<code class="literal">\emph</code> command may be used to achieve this effect in LaTeX. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">This is the \emph{emphasized text}.
+</pre>
+<p id="x_118"></a>If the
+<code class="literal">\emph</code> command is nested within another emphasize command, LaTeX emphasized that text using normal fonts. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\emph{Did you wonder what happens when we try \emph{emphasizing text} within \emph{emphasized text}}?
+</pre>
+<p id="x_119"></a>        <span class="emphasis"><em>This is emphasized text, and</em></span> this is emphasized text with normal font
+<span class="emphasis"><em>, within</em></span> emphasized text.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="7.2. Quotation Marks">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="quotation-marks"></a>7.2. Quotation Marks</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_11a"></a>When typing in LaTeX, the double quotation mark
+<code class="literal">"</code> character shouldn't be used. The grave accent `
+<code class="literal">
+<code class="literal"> character produces the left quote and the apostrophe </code>'
+</code> character produces the right quote. To obtain double quotes they are, each, used twice. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">`` Here is an example of putting `text' in quotes ''
+</pre>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="7.3. Dashes and Hyphens">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="dashes-and-hyphens"></a>7.3. Dashes and Hyphens</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_11b"></a>LaTeX has four dashes of different lengths. Three of them can be produces with different number of consecutive dashes. The short dashes are used for hyphens, slightly longer ones for number ranges and the longest ones for comments. The fourth one is a mathematical symbol, the minus sign. :</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">The names of these dashes are: `-' hyphen, `--' en-dash, `---' em-dash and `$-$' minus sign.
+</pre>
+<p id="x_11c"></a>The names for these dashes are: ‘‐’ hyphen, ‘–’ en-dash, ‘—’ em-dash and ‘−’ minus sign.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="7.4. Footnotes">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="footnotes"></a>7.4. Footnotes</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_11d"></a>With the command:</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\footnote{footnote text}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_11e"></a>a footnote is printed at the foot of the current page. Footnotes should always be put after the word or sentence they refer to. Footnotes referring to a sentence or part of it should therefore be put after the comma or period.</p>
+<p id="x_11f"></a>Note: Look at the
+<code class="literal">\marginpar</code> command to insert margin notes
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="7.5. Flushleft, Flushright, and Center">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="flushleft-flushright-and-center"></a>7.5. Flushleft, Flushright, and Center</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_120"></a>The environments
+<code class="literal">flushleft</code> and
+<code class="literal">flushright</code> generate paragraphs that are either left- or right-aligned.
+</p>
+<p id="x_121"></a>The
+<code class="literal">center</code> environment generates centered text.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="7.6. Itemize, Enumerate, and Description">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="itemize-enumerate-and-description"></a>7.6. Itemize, Enumerate, and Description</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_122"></a>LaTeX has three different environments for producing lists. Itemize, Enumerate and Description allow you to produce lists of various types in LaTeX.</p>
+<p id="x_123"></a>Itemize is used to produce unnumbered lists. The bullets of the list can be easily changed to use any character. Enumerate environment allows you to produce auto-numbered lists. The description environment, allows you to produce a list of definitions. These environments can be nested within each other, easily.</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\begin{itemize}
+\item Now we move onto some elementary \emph{Text Typesetting}.
+\item How do we get \emph{emphasized or italic text}?
+\item \emph{Did you wonder what happens when we try \emph{emphasizing text} within \emph{emphasized text}}?
+\item ``Beautiful is better than ugly.''
+\end{itemize}
+\begin{description}
+\item[Description] This list is a description list.
+\item[Enumerate] Numbered lists are often useful.
+\begin{enumerate}
+\item First
+\item Second
+\item Third
+\item \ldots
+\end{enumerate}
+\item[Itemize] The list above this description list is an itemize list.
+\end{description}
+</pre>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="7.7. Quote, Quotation, and Verse">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="quote-quotation-and-verse"></a>7.7. Quote, Quotation, and Verse</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_124"></a>LaTeX provides a
+<code class="literal">quote</code> environment that can be used for quoting, highlighting important material, etc. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">The Zen of Python
+\begin{quote}
+The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters
+Beautiful is better than ugly.
+Explicit is better than implicit.
+Simple is better than complex.
+Complex is better than complicated.
+Flat is better than nested.
+Sparse is better than dense.
+Readability counts.
+Special cases aren't special enough to break the rules.
+Although practicality beats purity.
+Errors should never pass silently.
+Unless explicitly silenced.
+In the face of ambiguity, refuse the temptation to guess.
+There should be one-- and preferably only one --obvious way to do it.
+Although that way may not be obvious at first unless you're Dutch.
+Now is better than never.
+Although never is often better than *right* now.
+If the implementation is hard to explain, it's a bad idea.
+If the implementation is easy to explain, it may be a good idea.
+Namespaces are one honking great idea -- let's do more of those!
+\end{quote}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_125"></a>LaTeX provides two other similar environments, the quotation and the verse environments.</p>
+<p id="x_126"></a>The quotation environment can be used for longer quotes which have several paragraphs, since it indents the first line of each paragraph.</p>
+<p id="x_127"></a>The verse environment may be used to quote verses or poems, since the line breaks are important in quoting them. The lines are separated using
+<code class="literal">\\\\</code> at the end of a line and an empty line after each verse.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="7.8. Verbatim">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="verbatim"></a>7.8. Verbatim</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_128"></a>The verbatim environment allows us to insert pre-formatted text in a LaTeX document. It is useful for inserting code samples within the document. The verbatim text needs to be enclosed between
+<code class="literal">\begin{verbatim}</code> and
+<code class="literal">\end{verbatim}</code>. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\begin{verbatim}
+from numpy import *
+a = linspace(0, 5, 50, endpoint = False)
+\end{verbatim}
+from numpy import *
+a = linspace(0, 5, 50, endpoint = False)
+</pre>
+<p id="x_129"></a>To insert verbatim text in-line, the
+<code class="literal">\verb</code> command can be used. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">The verb command allows placing \verb|verbatim text| in-line.
+</pre>
+<p id="x_12a"></a>The | is just an example of a delimiter character. You can use any character except letters, * or space.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="8. Tables, Figures and Captions">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="tables-figures-and-captions"></a>8. Tables, Figures and Captions</h2></div></div></div>
+<div class="section" title="8.1. The \tabular environment">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="the-tabular-environment"></a>8.1. The
+<code class="literal">\tabular</code> environment
+</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_12b"></a>The
+<code class="literal">tabular</code> environment allows you to typeset tables in LaTeX.
+<code class="literal">\begin{tabular}[pos]{col fmt}</code> command can be used to specify the parameters of the table and start creating the table.
+</p>
+<p id="x_12c"></a>The
+<code class="literal">pos</code> argument specifies the vertical position of the table relative to the baseline of the surrounding text. It can take on the values
+<code class="literal">t</code> for top,
+<code class="literal">b</code> for bottom, or
+<code class="literal">c</code> for center.
+</p>
+<p id="x_12d"></a>The
+<code class="literal">col fmt</code> argument specifies the formatting of the columns of the table. You need to explicitly specify the formatting for each of the columns in the table. The
+<code class="literal">col fmt</code> argument can take on the following values.
+</p>
+<div class="informaltable"><table border="1">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="4">
+<col width="12">
+<col width="37">
+</colgroup>
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p id="x_12e"></a>
+<code class="literal">l</code>
+</p>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p id="x_12f"></a>left justified column content</p>
+</td>
+<td class="auto-generated"> </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p id="x_130"></a>
+<code class="literal">r</code>
+</p>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p id="x_131"></a>right justified column content</p>
+</td>
+<td class="auto-generated"> </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p id="x_132"></a>
+<code class="literal">c</code>
+</p>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p id="x_133"></a>centered column content</p>
+</td>
+<td class="auto-generated"> </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<div class="variablelist"><dl>
+<dt><span class="term">
+<code class="literal">*{n}{col}</code>
+</span></dt>
+<dd><p></p></dd>
+</dl></div>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p id="x_134"></a>produces
+<code class="literal">n</code> columns with the
+<code class="literal">col</code> type of formatting
+<code class="literal">*{3}{c}</code> is the same as {c c c}
+</p>
+</td>
+<td class="auto-generated"> </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p id="x_135"></a>``|</p>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p id="x_136"></a>produces a vertical line.</p>
+</td>
+<td class="auto-generated"> </td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table></div>
+<p id="x_137"></a>Now we look at how to input the actual entries of the tables. Each horizontal row in a table is separated by
+<code class="literal">\\</code>. Each column entry of a row is separated by
+<code class="literal">&amp;</code>.
+</p>
+<p id="x_138"></a>The
+<code class="literal">\hline</code> command allows you to draw horizontal lines between two rows of the table. But it does not allow you do draw partial lines.
+<code class="literal">\cline{a-b}</code> draws a horizontal line from column
+<code class="literal">a</code> to column
+<code class="literal">b</code>. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\begin{tabular}{|c|c|}
+\hline
+\verb+l+ &amp; left justified column content\\
+\hline
+\verb+r+ &amp; right justified column content\\
+\hline
+\verb+c+ &amp; centered column content\\
+\hline
+\verb+*{n}{col}+ &amp; produces \verb+n+ columns with the\\
+&amp; \verb+col+ type of formatting\\
+\cline{2-2}
+&amp;\verb+*{3}{c}+ is the same as \verb+{c c c}+ \\
+\hline
+\verb+|+ &amp; produces a vertical line\\
+\hline
+\end{tabular}
+</pre>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="8.2. Importing Graphics">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="importing-graphics"></a>8.2. Importing Graphics</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_139"></a>To include images in LaTeX, we require to use an additional package known as
+<code class="literal">graphicx</code>.  To load a package, we use the
+<code class="literal">\usepackage</code> directive in the preamble of the document. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\usepackage{graphicx}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_13a"></a>When compiling with
+<code class="literal">pdflatex</code> command,
+<span class="strong"><strong>jpg</strong></span>,
+<span class="strong"><strong>png</strong></span>,
+<span class="strong"><strong>gif</strong></span> and
+<span class="strong"><strong>pdf</strong></span> images can be inserted.
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\includegraphics[optional arguments]{imagename}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_13b"></a>A few
+<code class="literal">optional arguments</code>:
+</p>
+<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote">
+<div class="variablelist"><dl>
+<dt><span class="term">
+<code class="literal">width=x</code>,
+<code class="literal">height=x</code>
+</span></dt>
+<dd>
+<p></p>
+<p id="x_13c"></a>If only the height or width is specified, the image is scaled, maintaining the aspect ratio.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl></div>
+<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote">
+<div class="variablelist"><dl>
+<dt><span class="term">
+<code class="literal">keepaspectratio</code>
+</span></dt>
+<dd>
+<p></p>
+<p id="x_13d"></a>This parameter can either be set to true or false. When set to true, the image is scaled according to both width and height, without changing the aspect ratio, so that it does not exceed both the width and the height dimensions.</p>
+</dd>
+</dl></div>
+<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote">
+<div class="variablelist"><dl>
+<dt><span class="term">
+<code class="literal">scale=x</code>
+</span></dt>
+<dd>
+<p></p>
+<p id="x_13e"></a>Scale the image by a factor of
+<code class="literal">x</code>. For example,
+<code class="literal">scale=2</code>, will double the image size.
+</p>
+</dd>
+</dl></div>
+<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote"><div class="variablelist"><dl>
+<dt><span class="term">
+<code class="literal">angle=x</code>
+</span></dt>
+<dd>
+<p></p>
+<div class="blockquote"><blockquote class="blockquote"><p id="x_13f"></a>This option can be used to rotate the image by
+<code class="literal">x</code> degrees, counter-clockwise.
+</p></blockquote></div>
+</dd>
+</dl></div></blockquote></div>
+</blockquote></div>
+</blockquote></div>
+</blockquote></div>
+<pre class="programlisting">\includegraphics[scale=0.8, angle=30]{lion_orig.png}
+</pre>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="8.3. Floats">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="floats"></a>8.3. Floats</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_140"></a>Tables and Figures need to be treated in a special manner, since they cannot be split over pages, and they are referred to as floats in LaTeX.</p>
+<p id="x_141"></a>When there is not enough space on a page, to fit in a table or figure, it is floated over to the next page filling up the current page with text. LaTeX has float environments called table and figure for tables and images, respectively.</p>
+<p id="x_142"></a>Anything enclosed within the table or figure environments will be treated as floats. :</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\begin{figure}[pos] or
+\begin{table}[pos]
+</pre>
+<p id="x_143"></a>The
+<code class="literal">pos</code> parameter specifies the placement of the float. The possible values it can take are as follows.
+</p>
+<div class="informaltable"><table border="1">
+<colgroup>
+<col width="12">
+<col width="68">
+</colgroup>
+<thead><tr>
+<th>
+<p id="x_144"></a>Specifier</p>
+</th>
+<th>
+<p id="x_145"></a>Permission</p>
+</th>
+</tr></thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p id="x_146"></a>h</p>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p id="x_147"></a>at approximately the same place where it occurs in the source</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p id="x_148"></a>t</p>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p id="x_149"></a>at the top of the page.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p id="x_14a"></a>b</p>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p id="x_14b"></a>at the bottom of the page.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p id="x_14c"></a>p</p>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p id="x_14d"></a>on a special page for floats only.</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p id="x_14e"></a>!</p>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p id="x_14f"></a>Override LaTeX's internal parameters for good positions</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td>
+<p id="x_150"></a>H</p>
+</td>
+<td>
+<p id="x_151"></a>nearly equivalent to h!</p>
+</td>
+</tr>
+</tbody>
+</table></div>
+<p id="x_152"></a>Examples:</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\begin{figure}[h]
+\centering
+\includegraphics[scale=0.8, angle=30]{lion_orig.png}
+\end{figure}
+</pre>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="8.4. Captions">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="captions"></a>8.4. Captions</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_153"></a>The
+<code class="literal">\caption{text}</code> command allows you to add captions to images or tables. LaTeX automatically numbers your tables and figures and you need not include numbers in the captions that you write. The caption appears below or on top of the image (or table), depending on whether you place it after or before the
+<code class="literal">importgraphics</code> (or
+<code class="literal">tabular</code>) command.
+</p>
+<p id="x_154"></a>\begin{figure}[h] \centering \includegraphics[scale=0.8]{lion_orig.png} \caption{CTAN lion drawing by Duane Bibby; thanks to www.ctan.org} \end{figure}</p>
+<p id="x_155"></a>The caption command also, like the section command, has the short caption optional parameter. The short caption will appear in the list of tables or figures.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="8.5. List of Figures, Tables">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="list-of-figures-tables"></a>8.5. List of Figures, Tables</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_156"></a>LaTeX can automatically generate a List of Tables or Figures, with the table or figure numbers, the captions and page numbers on which they appear. This can be done using the
+<code class="literal">\listoftables</code> or
+<code class="literal">listoffigures</code> commands.
+</p>
+<p id="x_157"></a>Note: Just like table of contents, these lists also require an extra compilation.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="8.6. Cross References">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="cross-references"></a>8.6. Cross References</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_158"></a>LaTeX has a very efficient mechanism of inserting cross-references in documents.</p>
+<p id="x_159"></a>The command
+<code class="literal">\label{name}</code> is used to label figures, tables or segments of text.
+<code class="literal">\ref{name}</code> refers to the object marked by the
+<code class="literal">name</code> by it's numbering (figure, table, section etc.)
+<code class="literal">\pageref{name}</code> gives the page number of the object which has been labeled with
+<code class="literal">name</code>.
+</p>
+<p id="x_15a"></a>Note: Cross referencing also requires an extra compilation, like table of contents.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="9. Bibliography">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="bibliography"></a>9. Bibliography</h2></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_15b"></a>Bibliography or references can be added to LaTeX documents in two ways - using the
+<code class="literal">thebibliography</code> environment, or using BibTeX. Let's first look at using the
+<code class="literal">\thebibliography</code> environment and then move on to BibTeX.
+</p>
+<div class="section" title="9.1.  thebibliography environment">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="thebibliography-environment"></a>9.1.
+<code class="literal">thebibliography</code> environment
+</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_15c"></a>Writing bibliographies in LaTeX using the
+<code class="literal">thebibliography</code> environment is pretty easy. You simply have to list down all the bibliography items within the bibliography environment.
+</p>
+<p id="x_15d"></a>Each entry of the bibliography begins with the command
+<code class="literal">\bibitem[label]{name}</code>. The name is used to cite the bibliography item within the document using
+<code class="literal">\cite{name}</code>. The label option replaces the numbers from the auto enumeration with the labels given. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">He used this lion in the illustrations for D Knuth's original TeXbook\cite{DKnuth}, for L Lamport's LaTeX book\cite{LLamport}
+\begin{thebibliography}{99}
+\bibitem{DKnuth} Donald E. Knuth (1984). \emph{The TeXbook} (Computers and Typesetting, Volume A). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-13448-9.
+\bibitem{LLamport} Lamport, Leslie (1994). \emph{LaTeX: A document preparation system: User's guide and reference}.
+illustrations by Duane Bibby (2nd ed.). Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Professional.
+\end{thebibliography}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_15e"></a>The
+<code class="literal">99</code> in the example above indicates the maximum width of the label that the references may get. We here assume that the number of Bibliography items will be less than 100. If your document has less than 10 references, you may want to replace
+<code class="literal">99</code> with
+<code class="literal">9</code>.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="9.2. BibTeX">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="bibtex"></a>9.2. BibTeX</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_15f"></a>The previous section explained the process of listing references at the end of a document and embedding cross references. In this section let us explore the BibTeX environment for keeping track of references.</p>
+<p id="x_160"></a>Using BibTeX is a very convenient method to use, when writing multiple documents in a single area or field. BibTeX allows you to create a database of all your references and use them as and when required.</p>
+<p id="x_161"></a>The BibTeX database is stored in a
+<code class="literal">.bib</code> file. The structure of the file is quite simple and an example is shown below. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">@book{Lamport94,
+author    = "Leslie Lamport",
+title     = "A Document Preparation System: User's Guide and Reference",
+publisher = "Addison-Wesley Professional",
+year      = "1994",
+edition    = "second",
+note      = "illustrations by Duane Bibby"
+}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_162"></a>Each bibliography entry starts with a declaration of the type of the reference being mentioned. The reference is in the above example is of the book type. BibTeX has a wide range of reference types, for example,
+<code class="literal">article, book, conference, manual, proceedings, unpublished</code>.
+</p>
+<p id="x_163"></a>The type of reference is followed by a left curly brace, and immediately followed by the citation key. The citation key,
+<code class="literal">Lamport94</code> in the example above is used to cite this reference using the command
+<code class="literal">\cite{Lamport94}</code>.
+</p>
+<p id="x_164"></a>This is followed by the relevant fields and their values, listed one by one. Each entry must be followed by a comma to delimit one field from the other.</p>
+<p id="x_165"></a>To get your LaTeX document to use the bibliography database, you just add the following lines to your LaTeX document. :</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\bibliographystyle{plain}
+\bibliography{LaTeX}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_166"></a>Bibliography styles are files that tell BibTeX how to format the information stored in the
+<code class="literal">.bib</code> database file. The style file for this example is
+<code class="literal">plain.bst</code>. Note that you do not need to add the
+<code class="literal">.bst</code> extension to the filename.  If you wish to achieve a particular style of listing the bibliography items and citing them, you should use an appropriate style file.
+</p>
+<p id="x_167"></a>The
+<code class="literal">bibliography</code> command specifies the file that should be used as the database for references. The file used in this example is
+<code class="literal">LaTeX.bib</code>
+</p>
+<div class="section" title="9.2.1. Compiling">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
+<a name="compiling"></a>9.2.1. Compiling</h4></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_168"></a>Adding BibTeX based references, slightly complicates the process of compiling the document to obtain the desired output. The exact workings of LaTeX and BibTeX will not be explained here. The procedure for obtaining the output (without any explanations) is as follows:</p>
+<div class="orderedlist"><ol class="orderedlist" type="1">
+<li class="listitem"><p id="x_169"></a>Compile the
+<code class="literal">.tex</code> file using
+<code class="literal">pdflatex</code> -
+<code class="literal">$pdflatex LaTeX(.tex)</code>
+</p></li>
+<li class="listitem"><p id="x_16a"></a>Compile the
+<code class="literal">.bib</code> file using
+<code class="literal">bibtex</code> -
+<code class="literal">$bibtex LaTeX(.bib)</code>
+</p></li>
+<li class="listitem"><p id="x_16b"></a>Compile the
+<code class="literal">.tex</code> file again.
+</p></li>
+<li class="listitem"><p id="x_16c"></a>Compile the
+<code class="literal">.tex</code> file for one last time!
+</p></li>
+</ol></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="10. Typesetting Math">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="typesetting-math"></a>10. Typesetting Math</h2></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_16d"></a>It is advisable to use the AMS-LaTeX bundle to typeset mathematics in LaTeX. It is a collection of packages and classes for mathematical typesetting.</p>
+<p id="x_16e"></a>We load
+<code class="literal">amsmath</code> by issuing the
+<code class="literal">\usepackage{amsmath}</code> in the preamble. Through out this section, it is assumed that the
+<code class="literal">amsmath</code> package has been loaded.
+</p>
+<div class="section" title="10.1. Math Mode">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="math-mode"></a>10.1. Math Mode</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_16f"></a>There are a few differences between the
+<span class="emphasis"><em>math mode</em></span> and the
+<span class="emphasis"><em>text mode</em></span>:
+</p>
+<div class="orderedlist"><ol class="orderedlist" type="1">
+<li class="listitem"><p id="x_170"></a>Most spaces and line breaks do not have any significance, as all spaces are either derived logically from the mathematical expressions, or have to be specified with special commands such as
+<code class="literal">\</code>,
+<code class="literal">\quad</code> or
+<code class="literal">\qquad</code>
+</p></li>
+<li class="listitem"><p id="x_171"></a>Empty lines are not allowed.</p></li>
+<li class="listitem"><p id="x_172"></a>Each letter is considered to be the name of a variable and will be typeset as such. If you want to typeset normal text within a formula, then you have to enter the text using the \text{...} command</p></li>
+</ol></div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="10.2. Single Equations">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="single-equations"></a>10.2. Single Equations</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_173"></a>Mathematical equations can be inserted in-line within a paragraph (
+<span class="emphasis"><em>text style</em></span>), or the paragraph can be broken to typeset it separately (
+<span class="emphasis"><em>display style</em></span>).
+</p>
+<p id="x_174"></a>A mathematical equation within a paragraph is entered between
+<code class="literal">$</code> and
+<code class="literal">$</code>. Larger equations are set apart from the paragraph, by enclosing them within
+<code class="literal">\begin{equation}</code> and
+<code class="literal">\end{equation}</code>. If you don't wish to number a particular equation, the starred version of equation can be used.
+<code class="literal">\begin{equation*}</code> and
+<code class="literal">\end{equation*}</code>
+</p>
+<p id="x_175"></a>The equation can also be cross referenced using the
+<code class="literal">\label</code> and
+<code class="literal">\eqref</code> commands.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="10.3. Basic Elements">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="basic-elements"></a>10.3. Basic Elements</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_176"></a>Greek Letters can are entered as
+<code class="literal">\alpha, \beta, \gamma, \delta, ...</code> for lowercase letters and
+<code class="literal">\Alpha, \Beta, \Gamma, ...</code> for uppercase ones.
+</p>
+<p id="x_177"></a>Exponents and subscripts can be typeset using the carat
+<code class="literal">^</code> and the underscore
+<code class="literal">_</code> respectively. Most of the math mode commands act only on the next character. If you want a command to affect several characters, they need to be enclosed in curly braces.
+</p>
+<p id="x_178"></a>The
+<code class="literal">\sqrt</code> command is used to typeset the square root symbol. LaTeX of the root sign is determined automatically. The nth root is generated with
+<code class="literal">\sqrt[n]</code>.
+</p>
+<p id="x_179"></a>To explicitly show a multiplication a dot may be shown.
+<code class="literal">\cdot</code> could be used, which typesets the dot to the center.
+<code class="literal">\cdots</code> is three centered dots while
+<code class="literal">\ldots</code> sets the dots on the baseline. Besides that
+<code class="literal">\vdots</code> for vertical and
+<code class="literal">\ddots</code> can be used for diagonal dots.
+</p>
+<p id="x_17a"></a>A fraction can be typeset with the command
+<code class="literal">\frac{..}{..}</code>
+</p>
+<p id="x_17b"></a>The integral operator is generated with
+<code class="literal">\int</code>, the sum operator with
+<code class="literal">\sum</code>, and the product operator with
+<code class="literal">\prod</code>. The upper and lower limits are specified with
+<code class="literal">^</code> and
+<code class="literal">_</code> like subscripts and superscripts.
+</p>
+<p id="x_17c"></a>LaTeX provides all kinds of braces as delimiters. The round and square brackets can be produces using the keys on the keyboard and appending a backslash. Other delimiters can be produced using special commands of LaTeX. Placing
+<code class="literal">\left</code> in front of an opening delimiter and
+<code class="literal">\right</code> in front of a closing delimiter, instructs LaTeX to automatically take care of the sizes of the delimiters.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="10.4. Multiple Equations">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="multiple-equations"></a>10.4. Multiple Equations</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_17d"></a>Long formulae that run over several lines or equation systems, can be typeset using the
+<code class="literal">align</code> or
+<code class="literal">align*</code> environments.
+<code class="literal">align</code> numbers each of the lines in the environment, and
+<code class="literal">align*</code> as expected, does not number any of them.
+</p>
+<p id="x_17e"></a>The
+<code class="literal">&amp;</code> is used to align the equations vertically and the
+<code class="literal">\\</code> command is used to break the lines. Line numbering can be skipped for a particular line in the
+<code class="literal">align</code> environment by placing a
+<code class="literal">\nonumber</code> before the line break.
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\begin{align}
+\alpha^2 + \beta^2 &amp;= \gamma^2 \\
+\sum_{i=1}^ni &amp;= \frac{n(n+1)}{2}\\
+\sqrt{-1} &amp;= \pm1 \nonumber
+\end{align}
+</pre>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="10.5. Arrays and Matrices">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="arrays-and-matrices"></a>10.5. Arrays and Matrices</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_17f"></a>To typeset arrays, use the
+<code class="literal">array</code> environment. It works similar to the
+<code class="literal">tabular</code> environment. The
+<code class="literal">\\</code> command is used to break the lines. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\begin{equation*}
+\mathbf{X} = \left(
+\begin{array}{ccc}
+a_1 &amp; a_2 &amp; \ldots \\
+b_1 &amp; b_2 &amp; \ldots \\
+\vdots &amp; \vdots &amp; \ddots
+\end{array} \right)
+\end{equation*}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_180"></a>The
+<code class="literal">array</code> environment can also be used to typeset piecewise functions by using a “.” as an invisible
+<code class="literal">\right</code> delimiter :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\begin{equation*}
+f(x) = \left\{
+\begin{array}{rl}
+0 &amp; \text{if } x \le 0\\
+1 &amp; \text{if } x &gt; 0
+\end{array} \right.
+\end{equation*}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_181"></a>Six different types of matrix environments are available in the
+<code class="literal">amsmath</code> package for typesetting matrices.  They essentially have different delimiters:
+<code class="literal">matrix</code> (none),
+<code class="literal">pmatrix</code> (,
+<code class="literal">bmatrix</code> [,
+<code class="literal">Bmatrix</code> {,
+<code class="literal">vmatrix</code> | and
+<code class="literal">Vmatrix</code> ‖. In these matrix environments, the number of columns need not be specified, unlike the
+<code class="literal">array</code> environment. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\begin{equation*}
+\begin{matrix}
+1 &amp; 2 \\
+3 &amp; 4
+\end{matrix} \qquad
+\begin{bmatrix}
+1 &amp; 2 &amp; 3 \\
+4 &amp; 5 &amp; 6 \\
+7 &amp; 8 &amp; 9
+\end{bmatrix}
+\end{equation*}
+</pre>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="11. Miscellaneous Stuff">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="miscellaneous-stuff"></a>11. Miscellaneous Stuff</h2></div></div></div>
+<div class="section" title="11.1. Presentations">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="presentations"></a>11.1. Presentations</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_182"></a>LaTeX has quite a few options to produce presentation slides. We shall look at the
+<code class="literal">beamer</code> class, which is well developed and easy to use. We shall only briefly look at some of the features of beamer. For the best documentation, look at the beamer user guide.
+</p>
+<p id="x_183"></a>To write a
+<code class="literal">beamer</code> presentation, it is recommended that you use one of the templates that beamer provides. We shall use the
+<code class="literal">speaker_introduction</code> template to get started with beamer.
+</p>
+<p id="x_184"></a>As you can see, the document begins with the
+<code class="literal">documentclass</code> being set to beamer.
+</p>
+<p id="x_185"></a>The
+<code class="literal">\setbeamertemplate</code> command sets the template for various parameters. The
+<code class="literal">background canvas</code>,
+<code class="literal">headline</code> and
+<code class="literal">footline</code> are being set using the command.
+</p>
+<p id="x_186"></a>
+<code class="literal">\usetheme</code> command sets the theme to be used in the presentation.
+</p>
+<p id="x_187"></a>Notice that each slide is enclosed within
+<code class="literal">\begin{frame}</code> and
+<code class="literal">\end{frame}</code> commands. The
+<code class="literal">\begin{frame}</code> command can be passed the Title and Subtitle of the slide as parameters.
+</p>
+<p id="x_188"></a>To achieve more with beamer, it is highly recommended that you look at the
+<code class="literal">beameruserguide</code>.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="11.2. Including Code">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="including-code"></a>11.2. Including Code</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_189"></a>The
+<code class="literal">listings</code> package can be used to embed source code into your LaTeX document. We shall briefly explore inserting python code into our document.
+</p>
+<p id="x_18a"></a>Obviously, you first need to tell LaTeX that you want it to use the
+<code class="literal">listings</code> package, using the
+<code class="literal">\usepackage</code> command. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\usepackage{listings}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_18b"></a>Then, we tell LaTeX that we are going to embed Python code into this document. A simple code highlighting for Python code can be achieved using this. :</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\lstset{language=Python,
+showstringspaces=false,
+}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_18c"></a>You might want to customize the code highlighting further using other variables like
+<code class="literal">basicstyle</code>,
+<code class="literal">commentstyle</code>,
+<code class="literal">stringstyle</code>,
+<code class="literal">keywordstyle</code> etc. For detailed information on all this, you should look at the
+<code class="literal">listings</code> package documentation.
+</p>
+<p id="x_18d"></a>You include a block of code into your document by enclosing it within the
+<code class="literal">lstlisting</code> environment. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\begin{lstlisting}
+string="Hello, World! "
+for i in range(10):
+print string*i
+\end{lstlisting}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_18e"></a>You can also include source code files directly into your latex document, using the
+<code class="literal">lstinputlisting</code> command. :
+</p>
+<pre class="programlisting">\lstinputlisting[lastline=20]{lstexample.py}
+</pre>
+<p id="x_18f"></a>This command includes the first 20 lines of the file
+<code class="literal">lstexample.py</code> into out LaTeX document.
+</p>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="11.3. Including files">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
+<a name="including-files"></a>11.3. Including files</h3></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_190"></a>When working on a large document, it is convenient sometimes, to split the large file into smaller input files and club them together at the time of compiling.</p>
+<p id="x_191"></a>The
+<code class="literal">\input</code> or
+<code class="literal">\include</code> commands may be used to embed one LaTeX file into another. The
+<code class="literal">\input</code> command is equivalent to a copy and paste of the document, just before the compilation. The
+<code class="literal">\include</code> command is exactly similar, except for the fact that it creates a new page every time it is issued.
+</p>
+<p id="x_192"></a>
+<code class="literal">\input{file}</code> or
+<code class="literal">\include{file}</code> commands will include the file
+<code class="literal">file1.tex</code> with in the file where the command has been issued. Note that you do not need to specify the
+<code class="literal">.tex</code> extension of the file.
+</p>
+<p id="x_193"></a>The
+<code class="literal">\includeonly</code> is useful for debugging or testing the LaTeX document that you are creating, since it restricts the
+<code class="literal">\include</code> command. Only the files which are given as arguments to the
+<code class="literal">\includeonly</code> command will be included in the document (wherever a
+<code class="literal">\include</code> command for those files, has been issued).
+</p>
+<div class="section" title="11.3.1. A note on filenames">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h4 class="title">
+<a name="a-note-on-filenames"></a>11.3.1. A note on filenames</h4></div></div></div>
+<p id="x_194"></a>Never use filenames or directories that contain spaces. Make filenames as long or short as you would like, but strictly avoid spaces. Stick to upper or lower case letters (without accents), the digits, the hyphen and the full stop or period.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="section" title="12. Recommended Reading">
+<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
+<a name="recommended-reading"></a>12. Recommended Reading</h2></div></div></div>
+<div class="orderedlist"><ol class="orderedlist" type="1">
+<li class="listitem"><p id="x_195"></a>
+<span class="emphasis"><em>LaTeX Wikibook</em></span>
+</p></li>
+<li class="listitem"><p id="x_196"></a>
+<span class="emphasis"><em>The Not So Short Introduction to LaTeX2e</em></span> by Tobias Oetikar et al..
+</p></li>
+</ol></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div></body>
+</html>