Table of Contents
+-
+
- LaTeX +
-
+
- 1. TeX & LaTeX +
-
+
- 1.1. TeX +
- 1.2. LaTeX +
+- 2. WYSIWG vs. WYSIWM +
- 3. Hello World +
- +
- 4. Where do we want to go +
- 5. Some Basics +
- +
- 6. Some Structural Elements +
- +
- 7. Elementary Text Typesetting +
- +
- 8. Tables, Figures and Captions +
- +
- 9. Bibliography +
- +
- 10. Typesetting Math +
- +
- 11. Miscellaneous Stuff +
- +
- 12. Recommended Reading +
+
Table of Contents
+-
+
- 1. TeX & LaTeX +
-
+
- 1.1. TeX +
- 1.2. LaTeX +
+- 2. WYSIWG vs. WYSIWM +
- 3. Hello World +
- +
- 4. Where do we want to go +
- 5. Some Basics +
- +
- 6. Some Structural Elements +
- +
- 7. Elementary Text Typesetting +
- +
- 8. Tables, Figures and Captions +
- +
- 9. Bibliography +
- +
- 10. Typesetting Math +
- +
- 11. Miscellaneous Stuff +
- +
- 12. Recommended Reading +
LaTeX is a typesetting program used to produce excellently typeset documents. It is extensively used for producing high quality scientific and mathematical documents. It may also be used for producing other kinds of documents, ranging from simple one page articles or letters
+TeX is a typesetting system designed by Donald Knuth, the renowned Computer Scientist and Emeritus professor at Stanford University. Typesetting is placing text onto a page with all the style formatting defined, so that content looks as intended.
+It was designed with two goals in mind-
+-
+
To allow anybody to produce high-quality books using a reasonable amount of effort.
+To provide a system that would give the exact same results on all computers, now and in the future
+
TeX is well known for it's stability and portability.
+TeX is pronounced as "tech".
+The current version of TeX is 3.1415926 and is converging to π.
+LaTeX was originally written by Leslie Lamport in the early 1980s. It is an extension of TeX, consisting of TeX macros and a program to parse the LaTeX files. It is easier to use than TeX itself, at the same time producing the same quality of output.
+LaTeX is pronounced either as "Lah-tech" or "Lay-tech"
+WYSIWG is an acronym for "What You See Is What You Get". Word processors, are typically WYSIWG tools. LaTeX, TeX or other TeX based tools are not. They are typesetting or text formatting or document description programs. They can be called WYSIWM or "What You See Is What you Mean" systems, since you give a description of how things look, and LaTeX typesets the document for you.
+Here are a few reasons, why you should use LaTeX -
++
- +
LaTeX produces documents with excellent visual quality, especially mathematical and scientific documents.
- +
It does the typesetting to you. Typically, when one works with a word-processor, the user is doing the text formatting or typesetting along with typing out the content. LaTeX allows the user to concentrate on the content leaving aside the typesetting to LaTeX.
- +
It is light on your resources as compared to most of the word processors available today.
- +
It is well known for it's stability and for it's virtually bug free code base.
- +
It encourages users to structure documents by meaning rather than appearance, thereby helping produce well structured documents.
- +
It uses plain text files as input, which have a lot of well known advantages over binary files. To state a few, they can be opened with any editor on any operating system, they are smaller in size compared to the binaries, can be version controlled and can be processed using widely used text processing utilities.
- +
The output can be generated in more than one formats.
- +
It is free software (free as in freedom) and gratis too.
- +
It is widely used.
OK, let's get started with our first LaTeX document. Open up your favorite editor and type in the following code.
+%hello.tex - First LaTeX document
+\documentclass{article}
+
+\begin{document}
+ Hello, World!
+\end{document}
+
+
+Save the file as
+ hello.tex and open up a terminal to compile your
+ tex file to get the output in a
+ pdf format.
+
$pdflatex hello.tex + +Output written on hello.pdf (1 page, 5733 bytes). +Transcript written on hello.log. + ++
Open the
+ hello.pdf to see the output as shown.
+
Note: The command
+ latex is often used to get the
+ dvi output. But, throughout this course, we shall use pdflatex to compile our documents.
+
+ %hello.tex - First LaTeX document
+
This line is a comment. LaTeX ignores this line and it is meant only for the human readers. LaTeX ignores anything after a +
%symbol to the end of the line. +
+ \documentclass{article}
+
This line is a command and sets the +
documentclassof the document to +article. LaTeX has other classes like +report, +book, +letter, etc. The typesetting of the document varies depending on the +documentclassof the document. +
+ \begin{document}
+
This line informs LaTeX that this is the beginning of the content of the document.
+ Hello, World!
+
This is the actual text displayed in the document.
+ \end{document}
+
This line tells LaTeX that the document is complete and LaTeX will simply ignore anything written after this line.
During the course of this session we will learn how to do various things in LaTeX and try to produce the sample document provided.
+Before we get started with creating the document, let's try to understand a few things that would be useful during the course of this session.
+LaTeX treats multiple empty spaces (or lines) as a single space (or line). An empty line between two lines of text is considered as a change of paragraphs.
+LaTeX usually does the job of breaking up your content into lines and pages, and does it well. But under some circumstances, you might want to instruct LaTeX to break line or start a new page at a particular point.
+
+ \\ or
+ \newline command is used to create a new line at the point where the command is issued. Appending
+ * to
+ \\, instructs LaTeX to create a new line, without creating a new page at that point.
+
As already mentioned, LaTeX considers an empty line between two lines of text as a new paragraph.
+ \par command may also be used to start a newline. It is equivalent to the blank line.
+
By default LaTeX indents new paragraphs. If you do not wish to have the paragraph indented, you can use the
+ \nointend command at the beginning of the paragraph.
+
LaTeX associates special meaning to the characters
+ ~ # $ % ^ & _ { } \.
+
To have these characters in the text of your document, you need to prefix a backslash to them.
+ \~ \# \% \$ \^ \& \_ \{ \} \textbackslash
+
-
+
All LaTeX commands start with a backslash +
\. +
+Like the commands in Linux, they are case sensitive.
+They usually have a backslash followed by a consisting of letters only. Any character other than letters, like space, numbers or special characters terminate the command.
+The commands for producing special characters in the text, is an exception. They contain a backslash followed by a single special character.
+Commands may have parameters, which are supplied to them by enclosing them in curly braces +
{ }. +
+They may also have a few optional parameters which are added after the name in square brackets +
[ ]. +
+
Environments are very similar to the commands, except that they effect larger parts of the document. For example, we used the
+ document environment in our first LaTeX document.
+
-
+
They begin with a +
\beginand end with a +\end+
+In general environments can be nested within each other.
+
As already stated, the
+ documentclass command tells LaTeX, the type of the document that you intend to create. Each class has a few differences in how the content of the document is typeset. We presently have it set to the article class. Let us try changing it to the report class.
+
Note that the top matter of the document appears in a different page for the report class.
+Some of the LaTeX classes that you may want to use are, article, proc, report, book, slides, letter.
+The
+ documentclass command also accepts a few optional parameters. For example:
+
\documentclass[12pt,a4paper,oneside,draft]{report}
+
+ 12pt specifies the size of the main font in the document. The relative sizes of the various fonts is maintained, when the font size is changed. If no size is specified,
+ 10pt is assumed by default.
+
+ a4paper specifies the size of the paper to be used for the document.
+
+ oneside specifies that the document will be printed only on one side of the paper. The
+ article and
+ report classes are
+ oneside by default and the
+ book class is
+ twoside.
+
+ draft marks the hyphenation and justification problems in the document with a small square in the right hand margin of the document, so that they can be easily spotted.
+
Note: Everything written in between the
+ \documentclass command and the
+ \begin{document} command is called the Preamble.
+
Often documents are divided into various parts, chapters, sections and subsections. LaTeX provides an intuitive mechanism to include this in your documents. It has various commands like
+ part,
+ chapter,
+ section,
+ subsection,
+ subsubsection,
+ paragraph and
+ subparagraph. Note that all these commands are not available in all the document classes. The
+ chapter command is available only in books and reports. Also, the
+ letter document class does not have any of these commands.
+
Let us now give our document some structure, using these commands.
+Note that you do not need to provide any numbers to the commands. LaTeX automatically takes care of the numbering. Also, you do not need to enclose the text of a block within
+ \begin and
+ \end commands. LaTeX starts a new block each time it finds a sectioning command. :
+
\section[Short Title]{This is a very long title and the Short Title will appear in the Table of Contents.}
+
+
+
+As already, you don't need to explicitly do any numbering in LaTeX. Parts are numbered using roman numerals; Chapters and sections are numbered using decimal numbers. When the table of contents is inserted into a document, all the numbered headings automatically appear in it.
+By default LaTeX has numbering up 2 levels, i.e, the parts, chapters, sections and subsections are numbered. You can change this by setting the
+ secnumdepth counter using the
+ \setcounter command. The following command removes numbering of the subsections. Only parts, chapters and sections are numbered. :
+
\setcounter{secnumdepth}{1}
+
+
+A sectioning command appended with an asterisk gives an unnumbered heading that is not included in the table of contents. :
+\section*{Introduction}
+
+
+The information about the document such as it's title, the date, the author(s) information etc, is collectively known as the topmatter. Though there is no command called
+ topmatter, the term topmatter is frequently used in LaTeX documentation.
+
Let us input the top matter for our document now. :
+\title{LaTeX - A How-to}
+\author{The FOSSEE Team}
+\date
+
+
+The commands
+ \title and
+ \author are self explanatory. The
+ \date command automatically puts in today's date into the document. Now let us compile and look at the result.
+
You would observe that the details do not appear in the document after recompilation. This is because, LaTeX has not been instructed what to do with the top matter information that you have given it. Use the
+ \maketitle command within the document environment to instruct LaTeX to place the top matter information into the document.
+
Lets now place and abstract in the document using the
+ abstract environment of LaTeX. The abstract appears in the document after the topmatter but before the main body of the document. :
+
\begin{abstract}
+The abstract abstract.
+\end{abstract}
+
+
+
+LaTeX allows for separate numbering for appendices.
+ \appendix command indicates that the sections following are to be included in the appendix. :
+
\appendix
+\chapter{First Appendix}
+
+
+Parts, chapters or sections that have been auto numbered by LaTeX automatically appear in the Table of Contents (ToC).
+ \tableofcontents command places a the ToC, where the command has been issued.
+
The counter
+ tocdepth specifies the depth up to which headings appear in the ToC. It can be set using the
+ \setcounter command as shown below. :
+
\setcounter{tocdepth}{3}
+
+
+Unnumbered sections can be placed in the table of contents using the
+ \addcontentsline command as shown below. :
+
\section*{Introduction}
+\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{Introduction}
+
+
+Note: To get the correct entries in your table of contents, you will need to run one extra compilation, each time. This is because, the entries of the table of contents are collected during each compilation of the document and utilized during the next compilation.
+
+ Italic font is generally used to emphasize text. The
+ \emph command may be used to achieve this effect in LaTeX. :
+
This is the \emph{emphasized text}.
+
+
+If the
+ \emph command is nested within another emphasize command, LaTeX emphasized that text using normal fonts. :
+
\emph{Did you wonder what happens when we try \emph{emphasizing text} within \emph{emphasized text}}?
+
+
+This is emphasized text, and this is emphasized text with normal font + , within emphasized text. +
+When typing in LaTeX, the double quotation mark
+ " character shouldn't be used. The grave accent `
+
+ character produces the right quote. To obtain double quotes they are, each, used twice. :
+ character produces the left quote and the apostrophe '
+
`` Here is an example of putting `text' in quotes '' + ++
LaTeX has four dashes of different lengths. Three of them can be produces with different number of consecutive dashes. The short dashes are used for hyphens, slightly longer ones for number ranges and the longest ones for comments. The fourth one is a mathematical symbol, the minus sign. :
+The names of these dashes are: `-' hyphen, `--' en-dash, `---' em-dash and `$-$' minus sign. + ++
The names for these dashes are: ‘‐’ hyphen, ‘–’ en-dash, ‘—’ em-dash and ‘−’ minus sign.
+With the command:
+\footnote{footnote text}
+
+
+a footnote is printed at the foot of the current page. Footnotes should always be put after the word or sentence they refer to. Footnotes referring to a sentence or part of it should therefore be put after the comma or period.
+Note: Look at the
+ \marginpar command to insert margin notes
+
The environments
+ flushleft and
+ flushright generate paragraphs that are either left- or right-aligned.
+
The
+ center environment generates centered text.
+
LaTeX has three different environments for producing lists. Itemize, Enumerate and Description allow you to produce lists of various types in LaTeX.
+Itemize is used to produce unnumbered lists. The bullets of the list can be easily changed to use any character. Enumerate environment allows you to produce auto-numbered lists. The description environment, allows you to produce a list of definitions. These environments can be nested within each other, easily.
+\begin{itemize}
+ \item Now we move onto some elementary \emph{Text Typesetting}.
+ \item How do we get \emph{emphasized or italic text}?
+ \item \emph{Did you wonder what happens when we try \emph{emphasizing text} within \emph{emphasized text}}?
+ \item ``Beautiful is better than ugly.''
+\end{itemize}
+
+\begin{description}
+ \item[Description] This list is a description list.
+ \item[Enumerate] Numbered lists are often useful.
+ \begin{enumerate}
+ \item First
+ \item Second
+ \item Third
+ \item \ldots
+ \end{enumerate}
+ \item[Itemize] The list above this description list is an itemize list.
+\end{description}
+
+
+LaTeX provides a
+ quote environment that can be used for quoting, highlighting important material, etc. :
+
The Zen of Python
+\begin{quote}
+ The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters
+
+ Beautiful is better than ugly.
+ Explicit is better than implicit.
+ Simple is better than complex.
+ Complex is better than complicated.
+ Flat is better than nested.
+ Sparse is better than dense.
+ Readability counts.
+ Special cases aren't special enough to break the rules.
+ Although practicality beats purity.
+ Errors should never pass silently.
+ Unless explicitly silenced.
+ In the face of ambiguity, refuse the temptation to guess.
+ There should be one-- and preferably only one --obvious way to do it.
+ Although that way may not be obvious at first unless you're Dutch.
+ Now is better than never.
+ Although never is often better than *right* now.
+ If the implementation is hard to explain, it's a bad idea.
+ If the implementation is easy to explain, it may be a good idea.
+ Namespaces are one honking great idea -- let's do more of those!
+\end{quote}
+
+
+LaTeX provides two other similar environments, the quotation and the verse environments.
+The quotation environment can be used for longer quotes which have several paragraphs, since it indents the first line of each paragraph.
+The verse environment may be used to quote verses or poems, since the line breaks are important in quoting them. The lines are separated using
+ \\\\ at the end of a line and an empty line after each verse.
+
The verbatim environment allows us to insert pre-formatted text in a LaTeX document. It is useful for inserting code samples within the document. The verbatim text needs to be enclosed between
+ \begin{verbatim} and
+ \end{verbatim}. :
+
\begin{verbatim}
+from numpy import *
+a = linspace(0, 5, 50, endpoint = False)
+\end{verbatim}
+
+from numpy import *
+a = linspace(0, 5, 50, endpoint = False)
+
+
+To insert verbatim text in-line, the
+ \verb command can be used. :
+
The verb command allows placing \verb|verbatim text| in-line. + ++
The | is just an example of a delimiter character. You can use any character except letters, * or space.
+The
+ tabular environment allows you to typeset tables in LaTeX.
+ \begin{tabular}[pos]{col fmt} command can be used to specify the parameters of the table and start creating the table.
+
The
+ pos argument specifies the vertical position of the table relative to the baseline of the surrounding text. It can take on the values
+ t for top,
+ b for bottom, or
+ c for center.
+
The
+ col fmt argument specifies the formatting of the columns of the table. You need to explicitly specify the formatting for each of the columns in the table. The
+ col fmt argument can take on the following values.
+
|
+
+ |
+
+ left justified column content + |
++ |
|
+
+ |
+
+ right justified column content + |
++ |
|
+
+ |
+
+ centered column content + |
++ |
+
|
+
+ produces
+ |
++ |
|
+ ``| + |
+
+ produces a vertical line. + |
++ |
Now we look at how to input the actual entries of the tables. Each horizontal row in a table is separated by
+ \\. Each column entry of a row is separated by
+ &.
+
The
+ \hline command allows you to draw horizontal lines between two rows of the table. But it does not allow you do draw partial lines.
+ \cline{a-b} draws a horizontal line from column
+ a to column
+ b. :
+
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|}
+ \hline
+ \verb+l+ & left justified column content\\
+ \hline
+ \verb+r+ & right justified column content\\
+ \hline
+ \verb+c+ & centered column content\\
+ \hline
+ \verb+*{n}{col}+ & produces \verb+n+ columns with the\\
+ & \verb+col+ type of formatting\\
+ \cline{2-2}
+ &\verb+*{3}{c}+ is the same as \verb+{c c c}+ \\
+ \hline
+ \verb+|+ & produces a vertical line\\
+ \hline
+\end{tabular}
+
+
+To include images in LaTeX, we require to use an additional package known as
+ graphicx. To load a package, we use the
+ \usepackage directive in the preamble of the document. :
+
\usepackage{graphicx}
+
+
+When compiling with
+ pdflatex command,
+ jpg,
+ png,
+ gif and
+ pdf images can be inserted.
+
\includegraphics[optional arguments]{imagename}
+
+
+A few
+ optional arguments:
+
+++
- +
+width=x, +height=x+- + +
+If only the height or width is specified, the image is scaled, maintaining the aspect ratio.
+++++
- +
+keepaspectratio+- + +
+This parameter can either be set to true or false. When set to true, the image is scaled according to both width and height, without changing the aspect ratio, so that it does not exceed both the width and the height dimensions.
+++++
- +
+scale=x+- + +
+Scale the image by a factor of +
+x. For example, +scale=2, will double the image size. +++
- +
+angle=x+- + +
++This option can be used to rotate the image by +
xdegrees, counter-clockwise. +
\includegraphics[scale=0.8, angle=30]{lion_orig.png}
+
+
+Tables and Figures need to be treated in a special manner, since they cannot be split over pages, and they are referred to as floats in LaTeX.
+When there is not enough space on a page, to fit in a table or figure, it is floated over to the next page filling up the current page with text. LaTeX has float environments called table and figure for tables and images, respectively.
+Anything enclosed within the table or figure environments will be treated as floats. :
+\begin{figure}[pos] or
+\begin{table}[pos]
+
+
+The
+ pos parameter specifies the placement of the float. The possible values it can take are as follows.
+
|
+ Specifier + |
+
+ Permission + |
+
|---|---|
|
+ h + |
+
+ at approximately the same place where it occurs in the source + |
+
|
+ t + |
+
+ at the top of the page. + |
+
|
+ b + |
+
+ at the bottom of the page. + |
+
|
+ p + |
+
+ on a special page for floats only. + |
+
|
+ ! + |
+
+ Override LaTeX's internal parameters for good positions + |
+
|
+ H + |
+
+ nearly equivalent to h! + |
+
Examples:
+\begin{figure}[h]
+\centering
+\includegraphics[scale=0.8, angle=30]{lion_orig.png}
+\end{figure}
+
+
+
+The
+ \caption{text} command allows you to add captions to images or tables. LaTeX automatically numbers your tables and figures and you need not include numbers in the captions that you write. The caption appears below or on top of the image (or table), depending on whether you place it after or before the
+ importgraphics (or
+ tabular) command.
+
\begin{figure}[h] \centering \includegraphics[scale=0.8]{lion_orig.png} \caption{CTAN lion drawing by Duane Bibby; thanks to www.ctan.org} \end{figure}
+The caption command also, like the section command, has the short caption optional parameter. The short caption will appear in the list of tables or figures.
+LaTeX can automatically generate a List of Tables or Figures, with the table or figure numbers, the captions and page numbers on which they appear. This can be done using the
+ \listoftables or
+ listoffigures commands.
+
Note: Just like table of contents, these lists also require an extra compilation.
+LaTeX has a very efficient mechanism of inserting cross-references in documents.
+The command
+ \label{name} is used to label figures, tables or segments of text.
+ \ref{name} refers to the object marked by the
+ name by it's numbering (figure, table, section etc.)
+ \pageref{name} gives the page number of the object which has been labeled with
+ name.
+
Note: Cross referencing also requires an extra compilation, like table of contents.
+Bibliography or references can be added to LaTeX documents in two ways - using the
+ thebibliography environment, or using BibTeX. Let's first look at using the
+ \thebibliography environment and then move on to BibTeX.
+
Writing bibliographies in LaTeX using the
+ thebibliography environment is pretty easy. You simply have to list down all the bibliography items within the bibliography environment.
+
Each entry of the bibliography begins with the command
+ \bibitem[label]{name}. The name is used to cite the bibliography item within the document using
+ \cite{name}. The label option replaces the numbers from the auto enumeration with the labels given. :
+
He used this lion in the illustrations for D Knuth's original TeXbook\cite{DKnuth}, for L Lamport's LaTeX book\cite{LLamport}
+
+\begin{thebibliography}{99}
+ \bibitem{DKnuth} Donald E. Knuth (1984). \emph{The TeXbook} (Computers and Typesetting, Volume A). Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-13448-9.
+
+ \bibitem{LLamport} Lamport, Leslie (1994). \emph{LaTeX: A document preparation system: User's guide and reference}.
+ illustrations by Duane Bibby (2nd ed.). Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Professional.
+\end{thebibliography}
+
+
+The
+ 99 in the example above indicates the maximum width of the label that the references may get. We here assume that the number of Bibliography items will be less than 100. If your document has less than 10 references, you may want to replace
+ 99 with
+ 9.
+
The previous section explained the process of listing references at the end of a document and embedding cross references. In this section let us explore the BibTeX environment for keeping track of references.
+Using BibTeX is a very convenient method to use, when writing multiple documents in a single area or field. BibTeX allows you to create a database of all your references and use them as and when required.
+The BibTeX database is stored in a
+ .bib file. The structure of the file is quite simple and an example is shown below. :
+
@book{Lamport94,
+author = "Leslie Lamport",
+title = "A Document Preparation System: User's Guide and Reference",
+publisher = "Addison-Wesley Professional",
+year = "1994",
+edition = "second",
+note = "illustrations by Duane Bibby"
+}
+
+
+Each bibliography entry starts with a declaration of the type of the reference being mentioned. The reference is in the above example is of the book type. BibTeX has a wide range of reference types, for example,
+ article, book, conference, manual, proceedings, unpublished.
+
The type of reference is followed by a left curly brace, and immediately followed by the citation key. The citation key,
+ Lamport94 in the example above is used to cite this reference using the command
+ \cite{Lamport94}.
+
This is followed by the relevant fields and their values, listed one by one. Each entry must be followed by a comma to delimit one field from the other.
+To get your LaTeX document to use the bibliography database, you just add the following lines to your LaTeX document. :
+\bibliographystyle{plain}
+\bibliography{LaTeX}
+
+
+Bibliography styles are files that tell BibTeX how to format the information stored in the
+ .bib database file. The style file for this example is
+ plain.bst. Note that you do not need to add the
+ .bst extension to the filename. If you wish to achieve a particular style of listing the bibliography items and citing them, you should use an appropriate style file.
+
The
+ bibliography command specifies the file that should be used as the database for references. The file used in this example is
+ LaTeX.bib
+
Adding BibTeX based references, slightly complicates the process of compiling the document to obtain the desired output. The exact workings of LaTeX and BibTeX will not be explained here. The procedure for obtaining the output (without any explanations) is as follows:
+-
+
Compile the +
.texfile using +pdflatex- +$pdflatex LaTeX(.tex)+
+Compile the +
.bibfile using +bibtex- +$bibtex LaTeX(.bib)+
+Compile the +
.texfile again. +
+Compile the +
.texfile for one last time! +
+
It is advisable to use the AMS-LaTeX bundle to typeset mathematics in LaTeX. It is a collection of packages and classes for mathematical typesetting.
+We load
+ amsmath by issuing the
+ \usepackage{amsmath} in the preamble. Through out this section, it is assumed that the
+ amsmath package has been loaded.
+
There are a few differences between the + math mode and the + text mode: +
+-
+
Most spaces and line breaks do not have any significance, as all spaces are either derived logically from the mathematical expressions, or have to be specified with special commands such as +
\, +\quador +\qquad+
+Empty lines are not allowed.
+Each letter is considered to be the name of a variable and will be typeset as such. If you want to typeset normal text within a formula, then you have to enter the text using the \text{...} command
+
Mathematical equations can be inserted in-line within a paragraph ( + text style), or the paragraph can be broken to typeset it separately ( + display style). +
+A mathematical equation within a paragraph is entered between
+ $ and
+ $. Larger equations are set apart from the paragraph, by enclosing them within
+ \begin{equation} and
+ \end{equation}. If you don't wish to number a particular equation, the starred version of equation can be used.
+ \begin{equation*} and
+ \end{equation*}
+
The equation can also be cross referenced using the
+ \label and
+ \eqref commands.
+
Greek Letters can are entered as
+ \alpha, \beta, \gamma, \delta, ... for lowercase letters and
+ \Alpha, \Beta, \Gamma, ... for uppercase ones.
+
Exponents and subscripts can be typeset using the carat
+ ^ and the underscore
+ _ respectively. Most of the math mode commands act only on the next character. If you want a command to affect several characters, they need to be enclosed in curly braces.
+
The
+ \sqrt command is used to typeset the square root symbol. LaTeX of the root sign is determined automatically. The nth root is generated with
+ \sqrt[n].
+
To explicitly show a multiplication a dot may be shown.
+ \cdot could be used, which typesets the dot to the center.
+ \cdots is three centered dots while
+ \ldots sets the dots on the baseline. Besides that
+ \vdots for vertical and
+ \ddots can be used for diagonal dots.
+
A fraction can be typeset with the command
+ \frac{..}{..}
+
The integral operator is generated with
+ \int, the sum operator with
+ \sum, and the product operator with
+ \prod. The upper and lower limits are specified with
+ ^ and
+ _ like subscripts and superscripts.
+
LaTeX provides all kinds of braces as delimiters. The round and square brackets can be produces using the keys on the keyboard and appending a backslash. Other delimiters can be produced using special commands of LaTeX. Placing
+ \left in front of an opening delimiter and
+ \right in front of a closing delimiter, instructs LaTeX to automatically take care of the sizes of the delimiters.
+
Long formulae that run over several lines or equation systems, can be typeset using the
+ align or
+ align* environments.
+ align numbers each of the lines in the environment, and
+ align* as expected, does not number any of them.
+
The
+ & is used to align the equations vertically and the
+ \\ command is used to break the lines. Line numbering can be skipped for a particular line in the
+ align environment by placing a
+ \nonumber before the line break.
+
\begin{align}
+\alpha^2 + \beta^2 &= \gamma^2 \\
+\sum_{i=1}^ni &= \frac{n(n+1)}{2}\\
+\sqrt{-1} &= \pm1 \nonumber
+\end{align}
+
+
+
+To typeset arrays, use the
+ array environment. It works similar to the
+ tabular environment. The
+ \\ command is used to break the lines. :
+
\begin{equation*}
+\mathbf{X} = \left(
+ \begin{array}{ccc}
+ a_1 & a_2 & \ldots \\
+ b_1 & b_2 & \ldots \\
+ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots
+ \end{array} \right)
+\end{equation*}
+
+
+The
+ array environment can also be used to typeset piecewise functions by using a “.” as an invisible
+ \right delimiter :
+
\begin{equation*}
+f(x) = \left\{
+ \begin{array}{rl}
+ 0 & \text{if } x \le 0\\
+ 1 & \text{if } x > 0
+ \end{array} \right.
+ \end{equation*}
+
+
+Six different types of matrix environments are available in the
+ amsmath package for typesetting matrices. They essentially have different delimiters:
+ matrix (none),
+ pmatrix (,
+ bmatrix [,
+ Bmatrix {,
+ vmatrix | and
+ Vmatrix ‖. In these matrix environments, the number of columns need not be specified, unlike the
+ array environment. :
+
\begin{equation*}
+ \begin{matrix}
+ 1 & 2 \\
+ 3 & 4
+ \end{matrix} \qquad
+
+ \begin{bmatrix}
+ 1 & 2 & 3 \\
+ 4 & 5 & 6 \\
+ 7 & 8 & 9
+ \end{bmatrix}
+\end{equation*}
+
+
+LaTeX has quite a few options to produce presentation slides. We shall look at the
+ beamer class, which is well developed and easy to use. We shall only briefly look at some of the features of beamer. For the best documentation, look at the beamer user guide.
+
To write a
+ beamer presentation, it is recommended that you use one of the templates that beamer provides. We shall use the
+ speaker_introduction template to get started with beamer.
+
As you can see, the document begins with the
+ documentclass being set to beamer.
+
The
+ \setbeamertemplate command sets the template for various parameters. The
+ background canvas,
+ headline and
+ footline are being set using the command.
+
+ \usetheme command sets the theme to be used in the presentation.
+
Notice that each slide is enclosed within
+ \begin{frame} and
+ \end{frame} commands. The
+ \begin{frame} command can be passed the Title and Subtitle of the slide as parameters.
+
To achieve more with beamer, it is highly recommended that you look at the
+ beameruserguide.
+
The
+ listings package can be used to embed source code into your LaTeX document. We shall briefly explore inserting python code into our document.
+
Obviously, you first need to tell LaTeX that you want it to use the
+ listings package, using the
+ \usepackage command. :
+
\usepackage{listings}
+
+
+Then, we tell LaTeX that we are going to embed Python code into this document. A simple code highlighting for Python code can be achieved using this. :
+\lstset{language=Python,
+ showstringspaces=false,
+ }
+
+
+You might want to customize the code highlighting further using other variables like
+ basicstyle,
+ commentstyle,
+ stringstyle,
+ keywordstyle etc. For detailed information on all this, you should look at the
+ listings package documentation.
+
You include a block of code into your document by enclosing it within the
+ lstlisting environment. :
+
\begin{lstlisting}
+string="Hello, World! "
+for i in range(10):
+ print string*i
+\end{lstlisting}
+
+
+You can also include source code files directly into your latex document, using the
+ lstinputlisting command. :
+
\lstinputlisting[lastline=20]{lstexample.py}
+
+
+This command includes the first 20 lines of the file
+ lstexample.py into out LaTeX document.
+
When working on a large document, it is convenient sometimes, to split the large file into smaller input files and club them together at the time of compiling.
+The
+ \input or
+ \include commands may be used to embed one LaTeX file into another. The
+ \input command is equivalent to a copy and paste of the document, just before the compilation. The
+ \include command is exactly similar, except for the fact that it creates a new page every time it is issued.
+
+ \input{file} or
+ \include{file} commands will include the file
+ file1.tex with in the file where the command has been issued. Note that you do not need to specify the
+ .tex extension of the file.
+
The
+ \includeonly is useful for debugging or testing the LaTeX document that you are creating, since it restricts the
+ \include command. Only the files which are given as arguments to the
+ \includeonly command will be included in the document (wherever a
+ \include command for those files, has been issued).
+