=====================================

Writing your first Django app, part 1

=====================================

Let's learn by example.

Throughout this tutorial, we'll walk you through the creation of a basic

poll application.

It'll consist of two parts:

    * A public site that lets people view polls and vote in them.

    * An admin site that lets you add, change and delete poll.

We'll assume you have `Django installed`_ already. You can tell Django is

installed by running the Python interactive interpreter and typing

``import django``. If that command runs successfully, with no errors, Django is

installed.

.. _`Django installed`: ../install/

.. admonition:: Where to get help:

    If you're having trouble going through this tutorial, please post a message

    to `django-users`_ or drop by `#django`_ on ``irc.freenode.net`` and we'll 

    try to help.

.. _django-users: http://groups.google.com/group/django-users 

.. _#django: irc://irc.freenode.net/django

Creating a project

==================

If this is your first time using Django, you'll have to take care of some

initial setup. Namely, you'll need to auto-generate some code that establishes

a Django *project* -- a collection of settings for an instance of Django,

including database configuration, Django-specific options and

application-specific settings.

From the command line, ``cd`` into a directory where you'd like to store your

code, then run the command ``django-admin.py startproject mysite``. This

will create a ``mysite`` directory in your current directory.

.. note::

    You'll need to avoid naming projects after built-in Python or Django

    components. In particular, this means you should avoid using names like

    ``django`` (which will conflict with Django itself) or ``site`` (which

    conflicts with a built-in Python package).

(``django-admin.py`` should be on your system path if you installed Django via

``python setup.py``. If it's not on your path, you can find it in

``site-packages/django/bin``, where ``site-packages`` is a directory within

your Python installation. Consider symlinking to ``django-admin.py`` from some

place on your path, such as ``/usr/local/bin``.)

.. admonition:: Where should this code live?

    If your background is in PHP, you're probably used to putting code under the

    Web server's document root (in a place such as ``/var/www``). With Django,

    you don't do that. It's not a good idea to put any of this Python code within

    your Web server's document root, because it risks the possibility that

    people may be able to view your code over the Web. That's not good for

    security.

    Put your code in some directory **outside** of the document root, such as

    ``/home/mycode``.

Let's look at what ``startproject`` created::

    mysite/

        __init__.py

        manage.py

        settings.py

        urls.py

These files are:

    * ``__init__.py``: An empty file that tells Python that this directory

      should be considered a Python package. (Read `more about packages`_ in the

      official Python docs if you're a Python beginner.)

    * ``manage.py``: A command-line utility that lets you interact with this

      Django project in various ways.

    * ``settings.py``: Settings/configuration for this Django project.

    * ``urls.py``: The URL declarations for this Django project; a "table of

      contents" of your Django-powered site.

.. _more about packages: http://docs.python.org/tut/node8.html#packages

The development server

----------------------

Let's verify this worked. Change into the ``mysite`` directory, if you

haven't already, and run the command ``python manage.py runserver``. You'll see

the following output on the command line::

    Validating models...

    0 errors found.

    Django version 0.95, using settings 'mysite.settings'

    Development server is running at http://127.0.0.1:8000/

    Quit the server with CONTROL-C (Unix) or CTRL-BREAK (Windows).

You've started the Django development server, a lightweight Web server written

purely in Python. We've included this with Django so you can develop things

rapidly, without having to deal with configuring a production server -- such as

Apache -- until you're ready for production.

Now's a good time to note: DON'T use this server in anything resembling a

production environment. It's intended only for use while developing. (We're in

the business of making Web frameworks, not Web servers.)

Now that the server's running, visit http://127.0.0.1:8000/ with your Web

browser. You'll see a "Welcome to Django" page, in pleasant, light-blue pastel.

It worked!

.. admonition:: Changing the port

    By default, the ``runserver`` command starts the development server on port

    8000. If you want to change the server's port, pass it as a command-line

    argument. For instance, this command starts the server on port 8080::

        python manage.py runserver 8080

    Full docs for the development server are at `django-admin documentation`_.

.. _django-admin documentation: ../django_admin/

Database setup

--------------

Now, edit ``settings.py``. It's a normal Python module with module-level

variables representing Django settings. Change these settings to match your

database's connection parameters:

    * ``DATABASE_ENGINE`` -- Either 'postgresql', 'mysql' or 'sqlite3'.

      More coming soon.

    * ``DATABASE_NAME`` -- The name of your database, or the full (absolute)

      path to the database file if you're using SQLite.

    * ``DATABASE_USER`` -- Your database username (not used for SQLite).

    * ``DATABASE_PASSWORD`` -- Your database password (not used for SQLite).

    * ``DATABASE_HOST`` -- The host your database is on. Leave this as an

      empty string if your database server is on the same physical machine

      (not used for SQLite).

.. admonition:: Note

    If you're using PostgreSQL or MySQL, make sure you've created a database by

    this point. Do that with "``CREATE DATABASE database_name;``" within your

    database's interactive prompt.

While you're editing ``settings.py``, take note of the ``INSTALLED_APPS``

setting towards the bottom of the file. That variable holds the names of all

Django applications that are activated in this Django instance. Apps can be

used in multiple projects, and you can package and distribute them for use

by others in their projects.

By default, ``INSTALLED_APPS`` contains the following apps, all of which come

with Django:

    * ``django.contrib.auth`` -- An authentication system.

    * ``django.contrib.contenttypes`` -- A framework for content types.

    * ``django.contrib.sessions`` -- A session framework.

    * ``django.contrib.sites`` -- A framework for managing multiple sites

      with one Django installation.

These applications are included by default as a convenience for the common

case.

Each of these applications makes use of at least one database table, though,

so we need to create the tables in the database before we can use them. To do

that, run the following command::

    python manage.py syncdb

The ``syncdb`` command looks at the ``INSTALLED_APPS`` setting and creates any

necessary database tables according to the database settings in your

``settings.py`` file. You'll see a message for each database table it creates,

and you'll get a prompt asking you if you'd like to create a superuser account

for the authentication system. Go ahead and do that.

If you're interested, run the command-line client for your database and type

``\dt`` (PostgreSQL), ``SHOW TABLES;`` (MySQL), or ``.schema`` (SQLite) to

display the tables Django created.

.. admonition:: For the minimalists

    Like we said above, the default applications are included for the common

    case, but not everybody needs them. If you don't need any or all of them,

    feel free to comment-out or delete the appropriate line(s) from

    ``INSTALLED_APPS`` before running ``syncdb``. The ``syncdb`` command will

    only create tables for apps in ``INSTALLED_APPS``.

Creating models

===============

Now that your environment -- a "project" -- is set up, you're set to start

doing work.

Each application you write in Django consists of a Python package, somewhere

on your `Python path`_, that follows a certain convention. Django comes with a

utility that automatically generates the basic directory structure of an app,

so you can focus on writing code rather than creating directories.

.. admonition:: Projects vs. apps

    What's the difference between a project and an app? An app is a Web

    application that does something -- e.g., a weblog system, a database of

    public records or a simple poll app. A project is a collection of

    configuration and apps for a particular Web site. A project can contain

    multiple apps. An app can be in multiple projects.

In this tutorial, we'll create our poll app in the ``mysite`` directory,

for simplicity. As a consequence, the app will be coupled to the project --

that is, Python code within the poll app will refer to ``mysite.polls``.

Later in this tutorial, we'll discuss decoupling your apps for distribution.

To create your app, make sure you're in the ``mysite`` directory and type

this command::

    python manage.py startapp polls

That'll create a directory ``polls``, which is laid out like this::

    polls/

        __init__.py

        models.py

        views.py

This directory structure will house the poll application.

The first step in writing a database Web app in Django is to define your models

-- essentially, your database layout, with additional metadata.

.. admonition:: Philosophy

   A model is the single, definitive source of data about your

   data. It contains the essential fields and behaviors of the data you're

   storing. Django follows the `DRY Principle`_. The goal is to define your

   data model in one place and automatically derive things from it.

In our simple poll app, we'll create two models: polls and choices. A poll has

a question and a publication date. A choice has two fields: the text of the

choice and a vote tally. Each choice is associated with a poll.

These concepts are represented by simple Python classes. Edit the

``polls/models.py`` file so it looks like this::

    from django.db import models

    class Poll(models.Model):

        question = models.CharField(maxlength=200)

        pub_date = models.DateTimeField('date published')

    class Choice(models.Model):

        poll = models.ForeignKey(Poll)

        choice = models.CharField(maxlength=200)

        votes = models.IntegerField()

The code is straightforward. Each model is represented by a class that

subclasses ``django.db.models.Model``. Each model has a number of class

variables, each of which represents a database field in the model.

Each field is represented by an instance of a ``models.*Field`` class -- e.g.,

``models.CharField`` for character fields and ``models.DateTimeField`` for

datetimes. This tells Django what type of data each field holds.

The name of each ``models.*Field`` instance (e.g. ``question`` or ``pub_date`` )

is the field's name, in machine-friendly format. You'll use this value in your

Python code, and your database will use it as the column name.

You can use an optional first positional argument to a ``Field`` to designate a

human-readable name. That's used in a couple of introspective parts of Django,

and it doubles as documentation. If this field isn't provided, Django will use

the machine-readable name. In this example, we've only defined a human-readable

name for ``Poll.pub_date``. For all other fields in this model, the field's

machine-readable name will suffice as its human-readable name.

Some ``Field`` classes have required elements. ``CharField``, for example,

requires that you give it a ``maxlength``. That's used not only in the database

schema, but in validation, as we'll soon see.

Finally, note a relationship is defined, using ``models.ForeignKey``. That tells

Django each Choice is related to a single Poll. Django supports all the common

database relationships: many-to-ones, many-to-manys and one-to-ones.

.. _`Python path`: http://docs.python.org/tut/node8.html#SECTION008110000000000000000

.. _DRY Principle: http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?DontRepeatYourself

Activating models

=================

That small bit of model code gives Django a lot of information. With it, Django

is able to:

    * Create a database schema (``CREATE TABLE`` statements) for this app.

    * Create a Python database-access API for accessing Poll and Choice objects.

But first we need to tell our project that the ``polls`` app is installed.

.. admonition:: Philosophy

    Django apps are "pluggable": You can use an app in multiple projects, and

    you can distribute apps, because they don't have to be tied to a given

    Django installation.

Edit the ``settings.py`` file again, and change the ``INSTALLED_APPS`` setting

to include the string ``'mysite.polls'``. So it'll look like this::

    INSTALLED_APPS = (

        'django.contrib.auth',

        'django.contrib.contenttypes',

        'django.contrib.sessions',

        'django.contrib.sites',

        'mysite.polls'

    )

Now Django knows ``mysite`` includes the ``polls`` app. Let's run another command::

    python manage.py sql polls

You should see the following (the CREATE TABLE SQL statements for the polls app)::

    BEGIN;

    CREATE TABLE "polls_poll" (

        "id" serial NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,

        "question" varchar(200) NOT NULL,

        "pub_date" timestamp with time zone NOT NULL

    );

    CREATE TABLE "polls_choice" (

        "id" serial NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,

        "poll_id" integer NOT NULL REFERENCES "polls_poll" ("id"),

        "choice" varchar(200) NOT NULL,

        "votes" integer NOT NULL

    );

    COMMIT;

Note the following:

    * Table names are automatically generated by combining the name of the app

      (``polls``) and the lowercase name of the model -- ``poll`` and

      ``choice``. (You can override this behavior.)

    * Primary keys (IDs) are added automatically. (You can override this, too.)

    * By convention, Django appends ``"_id"`` to the foreign key field name.

      Yes, you can override this, as well.

    * The foreign key relationship is made explicit by a ``REFERENCES`` statement.

    * It's tailored to the database you're using, so database-specific field

      types such as ``auto_increment`` (MySQL), ``serial`` (PostgreSQL), or

      ``integer primary key`` (SQLite) are handled for you automatically. Same

      goes for quoting of field names -- e.g., using double quotes or single

      quotes. The author of this tutorial runs PostgreSQL, so the example

      output is in PostgreSQL syntax.

    * The `sql` command doesn't actually run the SQL in your database - it just

      prints it to the screen so that you can see what SQL Django thinks is required.

      If you wanted to, you could copy and paste this SQL into your database prompt.

      However, as we will see shortly, Django provides an easier way of committing

      the SQL to the database.

If you're interested, also run the following commands:

    * ``python manage.py validate polls`` -- Checks for any errors in the

      construction of your models.

    * ``python manage.py sqlinitialdata polls`` -- Outputs any initial data

      required for Django's admin framework and your models.

    * ``python manage.py sqlclear polls`` -- Outputs the necessary ``DROP

      TABLE`` statements for this app, according to which tables already exist

      in your database (if any).

    * ``python manage.py sqlindexes polls`` -- Outputs the ``CREATE INDEX``

      statements for this app.

    * ``python manage.py sqlall polls`` -- A combination of all the SQL from

      the 'sql', 'sqlinitialdata', and 'sqlindexes' commands.

Looking at the output of those commands can help you understand what's actually

happening under the hood.

Now, run ``syncdb`` again to create those model tables in your database::

    python manage.py syncdb

The ``syncdb`` command runs the sql from 'sqlall' on your database for all apps

in ``INSTALLED_APPS`` that don't already exist in your database. This creates

all the tables, initial data and indexes for any apps you have added to your

project since the last time you ran syncdb. ``syncdb`` can be called as often

as you like, and it will only ever create the tables that don't exist.

Read the `django-admin.py documentation`_ for full information on what the

``manage.py`` utility can do.

.. _django-admin.py documentation: ../django_admin/

Playing with the API

====================

Now, let's hop into the interactive Python shell and play around with the free

API Django gives you. To invoke the Python shell, use this command::

    python manage.py shell

We're using this instead of simply typing "python", because ``manage.py`` sets

up the project's environment for you. "Setting up the environment" involves two

things:

    * Putting ``mysite`` on ``sys.path``. For flexibility, several pieces of

      Django refer to projects in Python dotted-path notation (e.g.

      ``'mysite.polls.models'``). In order for this to work, the

      ``mysite`` package has to be on ``sys.path``.

      We've already seen one example of this: the ``INSTALLED_APPS`` setting is

      a list of packages in dotted-path notation.

    * Setting the ``DJANGO_SETTINGS_MODULE`` environment variable, which gives

      Django the path to your ``settings.py`` file.

.. admonition:: Bypassing manage.py

    If you'd rather not use ``manage.py``, no problem. Just make sure

    ``mysite`` is at the root level on the Python path (i.e.,

    ``import mysite`` works) and set the ``DJANGO_SETTINGS_MODULE``

    environment variable to ``mysite.settings``.

    For more information on all of this, see the `django-admin.py documentation`_.

Once you're in the shell, explore the database API::

    # Import the model classes we just wrote.

    >>> from mysite.polls.models import Poll, Choice

    # No polls are in the system yet.

    >>> Poll.objects.all()

    []

    # Create a new Poll.

    >>> from datetime import datetime

    >>> p = Poll(question="What's up?", pub_date=datetime.now())

    # Save the object into the database. You have to call save() explicitly.

    >>> p.save()

    # Now it has an ID. Note that this might say "1L" instead of "1", depending

    # on which database you're using. That's no biggie; it just means your

    # database backend prefers to return integers as Python long integer

    # objects.

    >>> p.id

    1

    # Access database columns via Python attributes.

    >>> p.question

    "What's up?"

    >>> p.pub_date

    datetime.datetime(2005, 7, 15, 12, 00, 53)

    # Change values by changing the attributes, then calling save().

    >>> p.pub_date = datetime(2005, 4, 1, 0, 0)

    >>> p.save()

    # objects.all() displays all the polls in the database.

    >>> Poll.objects.all()

    [<Poll: Poll object>]

Wait a minute. ``<Poll: Poll object>`` is, utterly, an unhelpful

representation of this object. Let's fix that by editing the polls model (in

the ``polls/models.py`` file) and adding a ``__str__()`` method to both

``Poll`` and ``Choice``::

    class Poll(models.Model):

        # ...

        def __str__(self):

            return self.question

    class Choice(models.Model):

        # ...

        def __str__(self):

            return self.choice

It's important to add ``__str__()`` methods to your models, not only for your

own sanity when dealing with the interactive prompt, but also because objects'

representations are used throughout Django's automatically-generated admin.

Note these are normal Python methods. Let's add a custom method, just for

demonstration::

    import datetime

    # ...

    class Poll(models.Model):

        # ...

        def was_published_today(self):

            return self.pub_date.date() == datetime.date.today()

Note the addition of ``import datetime`` to reference Python's standard

``datetime`` module.

Let's jump back into the Python interactive shell by running

``python manage.py shell`` again::

    >>> from mysite.polls.models import Poll, Choice

    # Make sure our __str__() addition worked.

    >>> Poll.objects.all()

    [<Poll: What's up?>]

    # Django provides a rich database lookup API that's entirely driven by

    # keyword arguments.

    >>> Poll.objects.filter(id=1)

    [<Poll: What's up?>]

    >>> Poll.objects.filter(question__startswith='What')

    [<Poll: What's up?>]

    # Get the poll whose year is 2005. Of course, if you're going through this

    # tutorial in another year, change as appropriate.

    >>> Poll.objects.get(pub_date__year=2005)

    <Poll: What's up?>

    >>> Poll.objects.get(id=2)

    Traceback (most recent call last):

        ...

    DoesNotExist: Poll matching query does not exist.

    # Lookup by a primary key is the most common case, so Django provides a

    # shortcut for primary-key exact lookups.

    # The following is identical to Poll.objects.get(id=1).