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8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	4	<title>Chapter 1. </title>
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8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	8	<body bgcolor="white" text="black" link="#0000FF" vlink="#840084" alink="#0000FF"><div class="chapter" title="Chapter 1. ">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	9	<div class="titlepage"></div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	10	<div class="toc">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	11	<p><b>Table of Contents</b></p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	12	<dl>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	13	<dt><span class="article"><a href="#id2872631">Functional Approach</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	14	<dd><dl>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	15	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923650">1. Function scope</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	16	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923702">2. Default Arguments</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	17	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923738">3. Keyword Arguments</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	18	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923841">4. Parameter Packing and Unpacking</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	19	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923935">5. Nested Functions and Scopes</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	20	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923984">6. map, reduce and filter functions</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	21	<dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2924165">6.1. List Comprehensions</a></span></dt></dl></dd>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	22	</dl></dd>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	23	</dl>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	24	</div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	25	<div class="article" title="Functional Approach">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	26	<div class="titlepage">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	27	<div><div><h2 class="title">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	28	<a name="id2872631"></a>Functional Approach</h2></div></div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	29	<hr>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	30	</div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	31	<div class="toc">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	32	<p><b>Table of Contents</b></p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	33	<dl>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	34	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923650">1. Function scope</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	35	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923702">2. Default Arguments</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	36	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923738">3. Keyword Arguments</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	37	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923841">4. Parameter Packing and Unpacking</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	38	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923935">5. Nested Functions and Scopes</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	39	<dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2923984">6. map, reduce and filter functions</a></span></dt>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	40	<dd><dl><dt><span class="section"><a href="#id2924165">6.1. List Comprehensions</a></span></dt></dl></dd>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	41	</dl>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	42	</div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	43	<p><span class="emphasis"><em>Functions</em></span> allow us to enclose a set of statements and call the function again
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	44	and again instead of repeating the group of statements everytime. Functions also
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	45	allow us to isolate a piece of code from all the other code and provides the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	46	convenience of not polluting the global variables.</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	47	<p><span class="emphasis"><em>Function</em></span> in python is defined with the keyword <span class="strong"><strong>def</strong></span> followed by the name
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	48	of the function, in turn followed by a pair of parenthesis which encloses the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	49	list of parameters to the function. The definition line ends with a ':'. The
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	50	definition line is followed by the body of the function intended by one block.
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	51	The <span class="emphasis"><em>Function</em></span> must return a value:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	52	<pre class="programlisting"> def factorial(n):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	53	fact = 1
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	54	for i in range(2, n):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	55	fact *= i
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	56
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	57	return fact</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	58	<p>The code snippet above defines a function with the name factorial, takes the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	59	number for which the factorial must be computed, computes the factorial and
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	60	returns the value.</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	61	<p>A <span class="emphasis"><em>Function</em></span> once defined can be used or called anywhere else in the program. We
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	62	call a fucntion with its name followed by a pair of parenthesis which encloses
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	63	the arguments to the function.</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	64	<p>The value that function returns can be assigned to a variable. Let's call the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	65	above function and store the factorial in a variable:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	66	<pre class="programlisting"> fact5 = factorial(5)</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	67	<p>The value of fact5 will now be 120, which is the factorial of 5. Note that we
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	68	passed 5 as the argument to the function.</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	69	<p>It may be necessary to document what the function does, for each of the function
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	70	to help the person who reads our code to understand it better. In order to do
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	71	this Python allows the first line of the function body to be a string. This
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	72	string is called as <span class="emphasis"><em>Documentation String</em></span> or <span class="emphasis"><em>docstring</em></span>. <span class="emphasis"><em>docstrings</em></span> prove
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	73	to be very handy since there are number of tools which can pull out all the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	74	docstrings from Python functions and generate the documentation automatically
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	75	from it. <span class="emphasis"><em>docstrings</em></span> for functions can be written as follows:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	76	<pre class="programlisting"> def factorial(n):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	77	'Returns the factorial for the number n.'
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	78	fact = 1
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	79	for i in range(2, n):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	80	fact *= i
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	81
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	82	return fact</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	83	<p>An important point to note at this point is that, a function can return any
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	84	Python value or a Python object, which also includes a <span class="emphasis"><em>Tuple</em></span>. A <span class="emphasis"><em>Tuple</em></span> is
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	85	just a collection of values and those values themselves can be of any other
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	86	valid Python datatypes, including <span class="emphasis"><em>Lists</em></span>, <span class="emphasis"><em>Tuples</em></span>, <span class="emphasis"><em>Dictionaries</em></span> among other
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	87	things. So effectively, if a function can return a tuple, it can return any
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	88	number of values through a tuple</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	89	<p>Let us write a small function to swap two values:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	90	<pre class="programlisting"> def swap(a, b):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	91	return b, a
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	92
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	93	c, d = swap(a, b)</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	94	<div class="section" title="1. Function scope">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	95	<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	96	<a name="id2923650"></a>1. Function scope</h2></div></div></div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	97	<p>The variables used inside the function are confined to the function's scope
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	98	and doesn't pollute the variables of the same name outside the scope of the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	99	function. Also the arguments passed to the function are passed by-value if
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	100	it is of basic Python data type:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	101	<pre class="programlisting"> def cant_change(n):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	102	n = 10
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	103
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	104	n = 5
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	105	cant_change(n)</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	106	<p>Upon running this code, what do you think would have happened to value of n
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	107	which was assigned 5 before the function call? If you have already tried out
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	108	that snippet on the interpreter you already know that the value of n is not
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	109	changed. This is true of any immutable types of Python like <span class="emphasis"><em>Numbers</em></span>, <span class="emphasis"><em>Strings</em></span>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	110	and <span class="emphasis"><em>Tuples</em></span>. But when you pass mutable objects like <span class="emphasis"><em>Lists</em></span> and <span class="emphasis"><em>Dictionaries</em></span>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	111	the values are manipulated even outside the function:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	112	<pre class="programlisting"> >>> def can_change(n):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	113	... n[1] = James
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	114	...
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	115
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	116	>>> name = ['Mr.', 'Steve', 'Gosling']
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	117	>>> can_change(name)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	118	>>> name
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	119	['Mr.', 'James', 'Gosling']</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	120	<p>If nothing is returned by the function explicitly, Python takes care to return
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	121	None when the funnction is called.</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	122	</div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	123	<div class="section" title="2. Default Arguments">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	124	<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	125	<a name="id2923702"></a>2. Default Arguments</h2></div></div></div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	126	<p>There may be situations where we need to allow the functions to take the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	127	arguments optionally. Python allows us to define function this way by providing
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	128	a facility called <span class="emphasis"><em>Default Arguments</em></span>. For example, we need to write a function
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	129	that returns a list of fibonacci numbers. Since our function cannot generate an
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	130	infinite list of fibonacci numbers, we need to specify the number of elements
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	131	that the fibonacci sequence must contain. Suppose, additionally, we want to the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	132	function to return 10 numbers in the sequence if no option is specified we can
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	133	define the function as follows:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	134	<pre class="programlisting"> def fib(n=10):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	135	fib_list = [0, 1]
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	136	for i in range(n - 2):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	137	next = fib_list[-2] + fib_list[-1]
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	138	fib_list.append(next)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	139	return fib_list</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	140	<p>When we call this function, we can optionally specify the value for the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	141	parameter n, during the call as an argument. Calling with no argument and
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	142	argument with n=5 returns the following fibonacci sequences:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	143	<pre class="programlisting"> fib()
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	144	[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34]
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	145	fib(5)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	146	[0, 1, 1, 2, 3]</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	147	</div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	148	<div class="section" title="3. Keyword Arguments">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	149	<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	150	<a name="id2923738"></a>3. Keyword Arguments</h2></div></div></div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	151	<p>When a function takes a large number of arguments, it may be difficult to
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	152	remember the order of the parameters in the function definition or it may
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	153	be necessary to pass values to only certain parameters since others take
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	154	the default value. In either of these cases, Python provides the facility
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	155	of passing arguments by specifying the name of the parameter as defined in
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	156	the function definition. This is known as <span class="emphasis"><em>Keyword Arguments</em></span>.</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	157	<p>In a function call, <span class="emphasis"><em>Keyword arguments</em></span> can be used for each argument, in the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	158	following fashion:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	159	<pre class="programlisting"> argument_name=argument_value
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	160	Also denoted as: keyword=argument
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	161
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	162	def wish(name='World', greetings='Hello'):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	163	print "%s, %s!" % (greetings, name)</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	164	<p>This function can be called in one of the following ways. It is important to
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	165	note that no restriction is imposed in the order in which <span class="emphasis"><em>Keyword arguments</em></span>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	166	can be specified. Also note, that we have combined <span class="emphasis"><em>Keyword arguments</em></span> with
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	167	<span class="emphasis"><em>Default arguments</em></span> in this example, however it is not necessary:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	168	<pre class="programlisting"> wish(name='Guido', greetings='Hey')
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	169	wish(greetings='Hey', name='Guido')</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	170	<p>Calling functions by specifying arguments in the order of parameters specified
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	171	in the function definition is called as <span class="emphasis"><em>Positional arguments</em></span>, as opposed to
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	172	<span class="emphasis"><em>Keyword arguments</em></span>. It is possible to use both <span class="emphasis"><em>Positional arguments</em></span> and
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	173	<span class="emphasis"><em>Keyword arguments</em></span> in a single function call. But Python doesn't allow us to
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	174	bungle up both of them. The arguments to the function, in the call, must always
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	175	start with <span class="emphasis"><em>Positional arguments</em></span> which is in turn followed by <span class="emphasis"><em>Keyword
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	176	arguments</em></span>:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	177	<pre class="programlisting"> def my_func(x, y, z, u, v, w):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	178	# initialize variables.
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	179	...
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	180	# do some stuff
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	181	...
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	182	# return the value</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	183	<p>It is valid to call the above functions in the following ways:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	184	<pre class="programlisting"> my_func(10, 20, 30, u=1.0, v=2.0, w=3.0)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	185	my_func(10, 20, 30, 1.0, 2.0, w=3.0)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	186	my_func(10, 20, z=30, u=1.0, v=2.0, w=3.0)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	187	my_func(x=10, y=20, z=30, u=1.0, v=2.0, w=3.0)</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	188	<p>Following lists some of the invalid calls:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	189	<pre class="programlisting"> my_func(10, 20, z=30, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	190	my_func(x=10, 20, z=30, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	191	my_func(x=10, y=20, z=30, u=1.0, v=2.0, 3.0)</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	192	</div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	193	<div class="section" title="4. Parameter Packing and Unpacking">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	194	<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	195	<a name="id2923841"></a>4. Parameter Packing and Unpacking</h2></div></div></div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	196	<p>The positional arguments passed to a function can be collected in a tuple
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	197	parameter and keyword arguments can be collected in a dictionary. Since keyword
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	198	arguments must always be the last set of arguments passed to a function, the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	199	keyword dictionary parameter must be the last parameter. The function definition
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	200	must include a list explicit parameters, followed by tuple paramter collecting
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	201	parameter, whose name is preceded by a <span class="strong"><strong>*</strong></span>, for collecting positional
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	202	parameters, in turn followed by the dictionary collecting parameter, whose name
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	203	is preceded by a <span class="strong"><strong>**</strong></span></p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	204	<pre class="programlisting"> def print_report(title, args, *name):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	205	"""Structure of args
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	206	(age, email-id)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	207	Structure of name
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	208	{
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	209	'first': First Name
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	210	'middle': Middle Name
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	211	'last': Last Name
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	212	}
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	213	"""
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	214
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	215	print "Title: %s" % (title)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	216	print "Full name: %(first)s %(middle)s %(last)s" % name
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	217	print "Age: %d\nEmail-ID: %s" % args</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	218	<p>The above function can be called as. Note, the order of keyword parameters can
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	219	be interchanged:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	220	<pre class="programlisting"> >>> print_report('Employee Report', 29, 'johny@example.com', first='Johny',
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	221	last='Charles', middle='Douglas')
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	222	Title: Employee Report
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	223	Full name: Johny Douglas Charles
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	224	Age: 29
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	225	Email-ID: johny@example.com</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	226	<p>The reverse of this can also be achieved by using a very identical syntax while
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	227	calling the function. A tuple or a dictionary can be passed as arguments in
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	228	place of a list of <span class="emphasis"><em>Positional arguments</em></span> or <span class="emphasis"><em>Keyword arguments</em></span> respectively
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	229	using <span class="strong"><strong></strong></span> or <span class="strong"><strong>*</strong></span></p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	230	<pre class="programlisting"> def print_report(title, age, email, first, middle, last):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	231	print "Title: %s" % (title)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	232	print "Full name: %s %s %s" % (first, middle, last)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	233	print "Age: %d\nEmail-ID: %s" % (age, email)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	234
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	235	>>> args = (29, 'johny@example.com')
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	236	>>> name = {
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	237	'first': 'Johny',
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	238	'middle': 'Charles',
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	239	'last': 'Douglas'
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	240	}
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	241	>>> print_report('Employee Report', args, *name)
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	242	Title: Employee Report
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	243	Full name: Johny Charles Douglas
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	244	Age: 29
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	245	Email-ID: johny@example.com</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	246	</div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	247	<div class="section" title="5. Nested Functions and Scopes">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	248	<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	249	<a name="id2923935"></a>5. Nested Functions and Scopes</h2></div></div></div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	250	<p>Python allows nesting one function inside another. This style of programming
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	251	turns out to be extremely flexible and powerful features when we use <span class="emphasis"><em>Python
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	252	decorators</em></span>. We will not talk about decorators is beyond the scope of this
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	253	course. If you are interested in knowing more about <span class="emphasis"><em>decorator programming</em></span> in
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	254	Python you are suggested to read:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	255	<span style="color: red"><line_block><span style="color: red"><line><div class="reference">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	256	<div class="titlepage"><hr></div>http://avinashv.net/2008/04/python-decorators-syntactic-sugar/</div></line></span><span style="color: red"><line><div class="reference">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	257	<div class="titlepage"><hr></div>http://personalpages.tds.net/~kent37/kk/00001.html</div></line></span></line_block></span><p>However, the following is an example for nested functions in Python:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	258	<pre class="programlisting"> def outer():
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	259	print "Outer..."
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	260	def inner():
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	261	print "Inner..."
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	262	print "Outer..."
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	263	inner()
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	264
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	265	>>> outer()</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	266	</div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	267	<div class="section" title="6. map, reduce and filter functions">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	268	<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h2 class="title" style="clear: both">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	269	<a name="id2923984"></a>6. map, reduce and filter functions</h2></div></div></div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	270	<p>Python provides several built-in functions for convenience. The <span class="strong"><strong>map()</strong></span>,
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	271	<span class="strong"><strong>reduce()</strong></span> and <span class="strong"><strong>filter()</strong></span> functions prove to be very useful with sequences like
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	272	<span class="emphasis"><em>Lists</em></span>.</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	273	<p>The <span class="strong"><strong>map</strong></span> (<span class="emphasis"><em>function</em></span>, <span class="emphasis"><em>sequence</em></span>) function takes two arguments: <span class="emphasis"><em>function</em></span>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	274	and a <span class="emphasis"><em>sequence</em></span> argument. The <span class="emphasis"><em>function</em></span> argument must be the name of the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	275	function which in turn takes a single argument, the individual element of the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	276	<span class="emphasis"><em>sequence</em></span>. The <span class="strong"><strong>map</strong></span> function calls <span class="emphasis"><em>function(item)</em></span>, for each item in the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	277	sequence and returns a list of values, where each value is the value returned
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	278	by each call to <span class="emphasis"><em>function(item)</em></span>. <span class="strong"><strong>map()</strong></span> function allows to pass more than
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	279	one sequence. In this case, the first argument, <span class="emphasis"><em>function</em></span> must take as many
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	280	arguments as the number of sequences passed. This function is called with each
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	281	corresponding element in the each of the sequences, or <span class="strong"><strong>None</strong></span> if one of the
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	282	sequence is exhausted:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	283	<pre class="programlisting"> def square(x):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	284	return x*x
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	285
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	286	>>> map(square, [1, 2, 3, 4])
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	287	[1, 4, 9, 16]
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	288
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	289	def mul(x, y):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	290	return x*y
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	291
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	292	>>> map(mul, [1, 2, 3, 4], [6, 7, 8, 9])</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	293	<p>The <span class="strong"><strong>filter</strong></span> (<span class="emphasis"><em>function</em></span>, <span class="emphasis"><em>sequence</em></span>) function takes two arguments, similar to
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	294	the <span class="strong"><strong>map()</strong></span> function. The <span class="strong"><strong>filter</strong></span> function calls <span class="emphasis"><em>function(item)</em></span>, for each
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	295	item in the sequence and returns all the elements in the sequence for which
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	296	<span class="emphasis"><em>function(item)</em></span> returned True:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	297	<pre class="programlisting"> def even(x):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	298	if x % 2:
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	299	return True
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	300	else:
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	301	return False
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	302
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	303	>>> filter(even, range(1, 10))
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	304	[1, 3, 5, 7, 9]</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	305	<p>The <span class="strong"><strong>reduce</strong></span> (<span class="emphasis"><em>function</em></span>, <span class="emphasis"><em>sequence</em></span>) function takes two arguments, similar to
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	306	<span class="strong"><strong>map</strong></span> function, however multiple sequences are not allowed. The <span class="strong"><strong>reduce</strong></span>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	307	function calls <span class="emphasis"><em>function</em></span> with first two consecutive elements in the sequence,
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	308	obtains the result, calls <span class="emphasis"><em>function</em></span> with the result and the subsequent element
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	309	in the sequence and so on until the end of the list and returns the final result:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	310	<pre class="programlisting"> def mul(x, y):
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	311	return x*y
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	312
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	313	>>> reduce(mul, [1, 2, 3, 4])
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	314	24</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	315	<div class="section" title="6.1. List Comprehensions">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	316	<div class="titlepage"><div><div><h3 class="title">
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	317	<a name="id2924165"></a>6.1. List Comprehensions</h3></div></div></div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	318	<p>List Comprehension is a convenvience utility provided by Python. It is a
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	319	syntatic sugar to create <span class="emphasis"><em>Lists</em></span>. Using <span class="emphasis"><em>List Comprehensions</em></span> one can create
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	320	<span class="emphasis"><em>Lists</em></span> from other type of sequential data structures or other <span class="emphasis"><em>Lists</em></span> itself.
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	321	The syntax of <span class="emphasis"><em>List Comprehensions</em></span> consists of a square brackets to indicate
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	322	the result is a <span class="emphasis"><em>List</em></span> within which we include at least one <span class="strong"><strong>for</strong></span> clause and
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	323	multiple <span class="strong"><strong>if</strong></span> clauses. It will be more clear with an example:</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	324	<pre class="programlisting"> >>> num = [1, 2, 3]
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	325	>>> sq = [x*x for x in num]
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	326	>>> sq
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	327	[1, 4, 9]
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	328	>>> all_num = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	329	>>> even = [x for x in all_num if x%2 == 0]</pre>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	330	<p>The syntax used here is very clear from the way it is written. It can be
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	331	translated into english as, "for each element x in the list all_num,
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	332	if remainder of x divided by 2 is 0, add x to the list."</p>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	333	</div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	334	</div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	335	</div>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	336	</div></body>
8083d21c0020 The first commit of all the required files for the review app amit@thunder parents: diff changeset	337	</html>

author	amit@thunder
	Mon, 25 Jan 2010 18:56:45 +0530
changeset 0	8083d21c0020
permissions	-rw-r--r--